Sports mega-event legacies and adult physical activity: A systematic literature review and research agenda

Sports mega-events, such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games, have the potential to inspire increases in population physical activity, yet investigations concerning such legacy outcomes have been inconclusive. This may be due to research design limitations or inconsistent leveraging of potential hosting benefits by event organizers. This systematic review aims to identify current knowledge about the capacity of sports mega-events to inspire increases in physical activity participation among adult populations and develop a research agenda to guide future legacy evaluations. Peer-reviewed, English-language studies published on or after the year 2000 were considered. Six academic databases and grey literature sources were searched, and articles were assessed for methodological quality. Reporting followed PRISMA conventions for systematic reviews. Nine studies were selected after quality evaluation, including previous reviews, quantitative and qualitative research. Most studies found no evidence for long-term physical activity outcomes associated with hosting sports mega-events, although limitations and gaps were identified. These included lack of longitudinal or cohort studies, limited differentiation of subpopulations, use of non-validated instruments, and lack of triangulation for qualitative findings. Only one cohort study from Japan identified sustainable and significant physical activity increases resulting from a previous sports mega-event. Considering theory, the commonly cited Demonstration Effect was reportedly an unreliable framework, although the Festival Effect and Social Ecological Model appear more promising for anticipating and explaining legacy effects. With less than two years until the Tokyo 2020 Olympiad, it is appropriate to commence high-quality legacy research drawing on lessons learned from previous studies.     

Rating the Quality of Trials in Systematic Reviews of Physical Therapy Interventions

Physical therapists seeking to use evidence to guide their practice may have limited time to read research reports. One way to reduce the time required to identify and read about the research that is relevant to a particular clinical question is to read a systematic review that summarizes multiple studies. This paper explains the process that is used to conduct systematic reviews, which includes the establishment of a protocol, comprehensive searching, appraisal of the quality of the included studies, data extraction and metaanalysis, and consideration of the clinical and research implications of the findings. We also consider how the reader of a systematic review can determine whether the review is likely to provide an unbiased (believable) estimate of the treatment effect. A systematic review of randomized trials of a cardiopulmonary physical therapy intervention is used as an example. The issue of appraisal of quality is then discussed further, with a demonstration of how one validated tool for quality appraisal–the PEDro scale–can be used to evaluate a randomized trial in cardiopulmonary physical therapy.Key Words: systematic review, physical therapy     

Participatory research in sport-for-development: Complexities,experiences and (missed) opportunities

In this paper, the authors examine how participatory research can be conceptualized and fostered in sport-for-development (SfD). The authors offer a conceptualization of participatory research that centers on the interplay between three dimensions: participation, power, and reflexivity. Drawing on variegated experiences with SfD research across different geographical locations, the authors scrutinize the conceptual and empirical linkages between these dimensions, and how these linkages are influenced by structures of authority. Findings suggest that most SfD research falls short with regard to the critical challenge of embracing and delivering high degrees of participation, power shifting, and reflexivity. More specifically, SfD researchers typically fail to relinquish power and control over the research process. The SfD research community would likely benefit from greater inclusivity and collaboration when designing creative ways to improve this state of affairs. The authors conclude by reflecting on the implications and by suggesting ways to promote participatory and activist research in SfD contexts.     

Social change through an urban sport for development initiative? Investigating critical pedagogy through the voices of young people

This article explores the pedagogy of an urban Sport for Development (SfD) initiative in Belgium through the voices of young people. We draw on the critical pedagogy of Paulo Freire, and use qualitative research methods (i.e. observations, informal conversations, in-depth interviews and sharing circles) over a three-year period, to analyse the initiative’s actual pedagogical practice with key Freirean concepts (i.e. ‘banking education’, ‘dialogue’ and ‘dialogical action’) and virtues (e.g. respect for people’s knowledge, rejection of discrimination, caring for people). The findings reveal the presence of several Freirean virtues, emerging dialogue and, for some, action thought. Still, the SfD initiative remains at considerable distance from fully-fledged critical pedagogy. The young people in the SfD initiative nonetheless experience it as a space where they can be themselves, feel at home, gain respect, can learn to reflect and form opinions, and are temporarily freed from daily struggles such as discrimination. We discuss several pathways that could foster the capacity to organise and deliver a programme beyond emerging dialogue and action.     

Look into my eyes: What can eye-based measures tell us about the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance?

BackgroundThere is a growing interest to understand the neurobiological mechanisms that drive the positive associations of physical activity and fitness with measures of cognitive performance. To better understand those mechanisms, several studies have employed eye-based measures (e.g., eye movement measures such as saccades, pupillary measures such as pupil dilation, and vascular measures such as retinal vessel diameter) deemed to be proxies for specific neurobiological mechanisms. However, there is currently no systematic review providing a comprehensive overview of these studies in the field of exercise-cognition science. Thus, this review aimed to address that gap in the literature.MethodsTo identify eligible studies, we searched 5 electronic databases on October 23, 2022. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using a modified version of the Tool for the assEssment of Study qualiTy and reporting in EXercise (TESTEX scale, for interventional studies) and the critical appraisal tool from the Joanna Briggs Institute (for cross-sectional studies).ResultsOur systematic review (n = 35 studies) offers the following main findings: (a) there is insufficient evidence available to draw solid conclusions concerning gaze-fixation-based measures; (b) the evidence that pupillometric measures, which are a proxy for the noradrenergic system, can explain the positive effect of acute exercise and cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive performance is mixed; (c) physical training- or fitness-related changes of the cerebrovascular system (operationalized via changes in retinal vasculature) are, in general, positively associated with cognitive performance improvements; (d) acute and chronic physical exercises show a positive effect based on an oculomotor-based measure of executive function (operationalized via antisaccade tasks); and (e) the positive association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive performance is partly mediated by the dopaminergic system (operationalized via spontaneous eye-blink rate).ConclusionThis systematic review offers confirmation that eye-based measures can provide valuable insight into the neurobiological mechanisms that may drive positive associations between physical activity and fitness and measures of cognitive performance. However, due to the limited number of studies utilizing specific methods for obtaining eye-based measures (e.g., pupillometry, retinal vessel analysis, spontaneous eye blink rate) or investigating a possible dose–response relationship, further research is necessary before more nuanced conclusions can be drawn. Given that eye-based measures are economical and non-invasive, we hope this review will foster the future application of eye-based measures in the field of exercise-cognition science.     

Using shared online blogs to structure and support informal coach learning—part 1: a tool to promote reflection and communities of practice

Coaches' apparent preferences for informal and self-directed modes of learning have been highlighted in the literature. Consequently, there is a need for innovative coach education approaches that complement these clearly preferred, informal routes and better provide coaches with the professional skills they need to deal with the complex nature of their work. Online blogs are one such tool said to have the potential to strengthen and promote critical thinking and reflection on professional practice; however, research evidence and theoretical frameworks for their use is inconclusive and currently lacking. Therefore, the purpose of part 1 of this two-part investigation was to explore the use of shared online blogs as a tool to promote reflection and community of practice (CoP) in a cohort of 24 undergraduate sports coaching students (5 females, 19 males). Four group blogs, purposely designed to support informal workplace learning, were subjected to content analysis in order to determine the emergent reflective quality of blog entries and the extent to which functioning online CoPs emerged. Findings revealed that shared blogs were a useful tool to promote higher order reflective thinking, and fully functioning online CoPs emerged in all four groups.     

运动与健康促进研究领域系统评价/Meta分析的方法学与报告质量评价——基于中文核心期刊

目的:评估我国运动与健康促进研究领域系统评价/Meta分析的方法学与报告质量,为规范本领域研究提供参考。方法:计算机检索CNKI数据库中"核心期刊"的系统评价/Meta分析文献,时限为建库至2018年12月31日;按照纳入和排除标准筛选文献并提取数据,使用AMSTAR 2和PRISMA量表分别对方法学和报告质量进行评估,采用Excel 2013软件进行数据统计与分析。结果:共纳入92篇文献。大多数文献的AMSTAR 2量表质量分级为极低质量,PRISMA平均分17.89±2.39,方法学和报告质量均存在缺陷,高质量文献较少。方法学缺陷:未提供研究方案和计划书、未给出排除文献清单及排除理由、未说明纳入文献资助来源及相关利益冲突,考虑偏倚风险不充分,合并结果不够严谨,异质性分析不够完整等;报告质量主要不足:结构式摘要、方案和注册、研究偏倚、其他分析、研究间偏倚和资金支持等存在不同程度缺陷。结论:运动与健康促进领域的中文系统评价/Meta分析整体上方法学和报告质量较差,存在不同程度缺陷亟需进一步完善;由于存在一定局限性,结论尚需更多研究者持续关注并不断完善。     

The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and cognitive performance in children

The potential for physical activity and fitness to improve cognitive function, learning and academic achievement in children has received attention by researchers and policy makers. This paper reports a systematic approach to identification, analysis and review of published studies up to early 2009. A three-step search method was adopted to identify studies that used measures of physical activity or fitness to assess either degree of association with or effect on a) academic achievement and b) cognitive performance. A total of 18 studies including one randomised control trial, six quasi-experimental and 11 correlational studies were included for data extraction. No studies meeting criteria that examined the links between physical activity and cognitive function were found. Weak positive associations were found between both physical activity and fitness and academic achievement and fitness and elements of cognitive function, but this was not supported by intervention studies. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that additional physical education time increases academic achievement; however there is no evidence that it is detrimental. The quality and depth of the evidence base is limited. Further research with rigour beyond correlational studies is essential.     

对学校体育环境研究现状的分析与思考

学校体育环境是体育理论研究中一个非常重要而又容易被忽视的特殊领域。人们对学校体育环境作了许多局部的研究,但尚缺乏系统性,不能形成对学校体育环境的整体认识。通过文献资料法梳理了有关学校体育环境研究十多年来的发展历程,力求形成对学校体育环境研究的整体认识,并分析当前研究存在的问题,为以后的研究提供参考。     

Relationship between sport knowledge, sport performance and academic ability: empirical evidence from GCSE Physical Education. General Certificate of Secondary Education.

The literature concerning links between sport knowledge, sport performance and academic ability is reviewed and related to empirical evidence obtained from a GCSE examination in Physical Education, together with GCSE Mathematics and GCSE English grades. For most sports examined, there was a small but significant positive correlation between sport performance and GCSE Mathematics and English grades, confirming the findings of most previous research. Using a multilevel multivariate model, average sport performance, academic ability and sex were important explanatory variables for sport knowledge, yet only academic ability was an important explanatory variable for the concept of physical education knowledge. Ability in game sports, rather than athletics, were related to sport knowledge. Males scored higher for sport knowledge than females, after taking into account sport performance and academic ability. The effects of sport performance and academic ability on sport knowledge were stable across schools, but there was some evidence that the effect of sex varied across schools. These findings support theories of a role for sport knowledge in sport performance; that such a role should be greater in game sports; that academic ability is important for gaining such knowledge; and they highlight differences in sport knowledge between the sexes.     

A review of the use of a systematic observation method in coaching research between 1997 and 2016

A systematic observation method has been one of the most popularly employed methods in coaching research. Kahan’s review of this method conducted between 1975 and 1997 highlighted the key trends in this research, and offered methodological guidance for researchers wishing to use this method in their research. The purpose of this review was to provide an update of the use of a systematic observation method in coaching research and assess the extent to which the calls made by Kahan have been addressed. While in some respect this field of study has progressed (i.e., the introduction of qualitative methods), researchers adopting this method have failed to attend to many of the issues Kahan raised. For this method to continue to make a positive contribution towards the coaching research literature, researchers need to more critically reflect on how and why they are employing this method. At present, some of the decisions made by researchers who have conducted work in this area are not justified with a rationale. It is our intention that this review will serve as guidance for researchers and practitioners, and editors and reviewers of journals when attempting to assess the quality of this type of work.     

Conducting research in sports engineering education

This aim of this paper is to provide recommendations for developing sports engineering education research (SEER) both at the individual and community levels. The emergence of this field can be positively informed by reflection on similar developments in other fields, particularly engineering education and health science education research. The large traditional engineering disciplines, including chemical, electrical and computer, and mechanical, have well-developed communities and publication venues for educational research. Health professions, including kinesiology, rehabilitation, nursing, and medicine, have allied with sports engineering to develop educational research that can inform methods and provide opportunities for dissemination. As an interdisciplinary field, it is also critical to draw on the growing body of interprofessional education research. The rich literature relating to discipline-based educational research (DBER) and the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) can support individuals moving into this field, and observations by communities in other disciplines can provide guideposts for sports engineering. There are well-established processes and methodologies that can be adapted from other discipline-based educational research fields. As stand-alone sports engineering education programs are relatively rare and young, there is an opportunity available to create a culture that values research on education in the field.     

So much research,so little application: Barriers to dissemination and practical implementation of Tai Ji Quan

Despite the large number of articles published in the medical literature advocating the use of Tai Ji Quan for a wide variety of health-related outcomes, there has been little systematic broad-scale implementation of these programs. It may be argued that the lack of funding from organizations capable of implementing and overseeing large-scale programs, such as governmental health agencies or national non-governmental organizations concerned with healthcare for older adults, is to blame. However, the evidence these organizations need to justify underwriting such programs is in short supply because of conflicting priorities and standards related to determining the efficacy and effectiveness of Tai Ji Quan. Establishing efficacy through acceptable designs such as randomized controlled trials involves strict protocols to ensure meaningful internal validity but different approaches are needed to demonstrate meaningful effectiveness (external validity) outside the study setting. By examining the quality, quantity, and relative proportions of the randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and dissemination studies reported in the medical literature, this paper highlights the disparity in emphasis between efficacy and effectiveness research that has impeded the development of a cohesive literature on Tai Ji Quan and concludes that until more researchers develop a systematic, long-range commitment to investigating its health-related benefits, the research related to Tai Ji Quan will remain fractured and sporadic, limiting the incentive of large funding agencies to support its wide-spread use.     

对我国普通高校篮球教练员相关研究的综述

目前,有关高校篮球教练员问题的研究主要分三类：（1）通过抽样调查反映教练员现状,（2）通过中外对比分析我国高校篮球教练员制度的不足,（3）分析高校篮球教练员应具备的能力素质及其训练指导思想。总体上看,研究涵盖面较广,但系统性及深入程度不够,缺乏对工作业绩评价体系、培养提高模式等方面的研究,建议今后将研究重点放在制定合理的评估指标、奖惩制度,建立系统化的培养提高体系上。     

浅谈体操教学中恐惧心理的克服

在体操教学中,学生常常会产生恐惧心理,严重影响体操的教学质量。本文采用文献法和系统分析法,阐述了恐惧心理的基本特征和产生原因,并从教学的主体和主导两个方面提出了恐惧心理的预防措施,紧紧围绕恐惧心理的特征提出了克服恐惧心理的方法,以供同行在教学中和学术讨论中参考。     

The psychology of elite cycling: a systematic review

This systematic review sought to synthesise what is currently known about the psychology of elite cycling. Nine electronic databases were searched in March 2017 for studies reporting an empirical test of any psychological construct in an elite cycling sample. Fourteen studies (total n = 427) met inclusion criteria. Eight studies were coded as having high risk of bias. Themes extracted included mood, anxiety, self-confidence, pain, and cognitive function. Few studies had similar objectives meaning that in many instances findings could not be synthesised in a meaningful way. Nevertheless, there was some cross-study evidence that elite cyclists have more positive mood states (relative to normative scores), pre-race anxiety impairs performance (among male cyclists), and associative strategies are perceived as helpful for pain management. Among single studies coded as having low risk of bias, evidence suggests that implicit beliefs affect decision making performance, elite cyclists are less susceptible to mental fatigue (than non-elite cyclists), and better leadership skills relates to greater social labouring. Limitations include non-standardisation of measures, lack of follow-up data, small sample sizes, and overall poor research quality. The findings of this systematic review might be used to inform research and theory development on the psychology of elite endurance cycling.     

A mixed-studies systematic review and meta-analysis of school-based interventions to promote physical activity and/or reduce sedentary time in children

PurposeThe aim of this mixed-studies systematic review was to ascertain the effectiveness of school-based interventions in increasing physical activity (PA) and/or reducing sedentary time (ST) in children aged 5–11 years, as well as to explore their effectiveness in relation to categories of the theory of expanded, extended, and enhanced opportunity (TEO).MethodsAdhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 5 databases were searched using predefined search terms. Following title and abstract screening of 1115 records, the removal of duplicates (n = 584) and articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria agreed to a priori (n = 419) resulted in 112 records that were full-text screened. Two independent reviewers subsequently used the mixed-methods appraisal tool to assess the methodological quality of 57 full-text studies that met the inclusion criteria after full-text screening. The interventions were summarised using the TIDierR checklist and TEO. The strength of evidence was determined using a 5-level rating system utilising a published decision tree.ResultsOverall evidence ratings for interventions implemented within school settings were: no evidence of effects on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and inconclusive evidence of effects on sedentary time. In relation to the TEO, expansion of PA appeared to be the most promising intervention type for MVPA, with moderate evidence of effect, whereas extension and enhancement of PA opportunity demonstrated no evidence of effect. A critical issue of possible compensatory behavior was identified by analysis of intervention effect in relation to PA measurement duration; when studies measured changes in PA during the actual intervention, there was moderate evidence of effect, whereas those that measured changes in PA during the school day presented inconclusive evidence of effect, and those that measured changes in PA over a whole day yielded no evidence of effect. Two meta-analyses of those studies using a whole-day accelerometer measure for MVPA or ST showed a significant but moderate effect for MVPA (effect size = 0.51; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.02–0.99) and a large but nonsignificant effect for ST (effect size = 1.15; 95%CI: –1.03 to 3.33); both meta-analyses demonstrated low precision, considerable inconsistency, and high heterogeneity.ConclusionThe findings have important implications for future intervention research in terms of intervention design, implementation, and evaluation.     

Loneliness and physical activity: A systematic review

This article aims to provide an overview of the current state of research on the relationship between loneliness and physical activity (PA). A systematic literature search was conducted to identify all empirical studies assessing this relationship. A total of 37 studies stemming from 36 publications met the inclusion criteria. Study analyses comprised an individual consideration of each study and a systematic summarization of the studies. The majority of eligible studies focused on adolescent or elderly populations. Direct negative associations between PA and loneliness were found in half of the 24 cross-sectional studies. Of the seven identified longitudinal studies, one found a direct negative influence of PA on loneliness. Four longitudinal studies found evidence for a reverse influence, namely of loneliness on PA. Five intervention studies found PA to reduce loneliness. Two of the cross-sectional studies and one of the intervention studies found social support and social competence to moderate or to mediate the relationship between PA and loneliness. The findings indicate that PA can contribute to a decrease in loneliness. However, studies also indicate that any beneficial effect is dependent upon the quality of relationships present during physical activity. Additionally, loneliness itself might reduce the probability of being physically active.     

Mentale Toughness im Sport

The present article reviews the previous literature on mental toughness in sport. The review demonstrates that qualitative researchers have been able to establish conceptual clarity and provide guidance for operationalizing the concept. As a consequence, several quantitative questionnaires have been developed beyond the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI). Meanwhile, there is preliminary evidence for the validity and reliability of these instruments. Moreover, researchers showed that mental toughness is associated with higher achievement levels or performance outcomes in elite athletes. Regarding the underlying mechanisms, prior research indicated that mentally tough athletes use more positive coping strategies. Although researchers agree that mental toughness is a rather stable construct, experimental research showed that mental skill training influenced mental toughness in a positive fashion. To date, there is a great need for more quantitative, longitudinal and experimental research. Also, a biopsychological approach offers an interesting avenue for future studies.