Physical Education Students’ Ownership,Empowerment, and Satisfaction With PE and Physical Activity

Individuals experiencing a highly caring, task-involving, and low ego-involving exercise climate have reported greater ownership in exercise class and empowerment to exercise in general. Purpose: This study examined the relationship between ownership and empowerment in exercise, with 2 context-specific outcomes, satisfaction with physical education (PE) and physical activity, respectively. Given the mission of PE to foster individuals’ lifelong physical activity habit, the perceptions of high school students were collected for this study. Ownership in exercise was hypothesized to be significantly, positively correlated with students reporting satisfaction in PE more than their satisfaction in physical activity, whereas empowerment in exercise was hypothesized to be more strongly, positively correlated with students’ physical activity satisfaction. A second purpose of this study was to test the measurement quality of the updated Empowerment in Exercise Scale (EES; now 13 items). Method: High school students (N = 502, 43% female) in a Midwestern U.S. school district completed a survey. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the internal measurement structure of the EES (λ = .62–.91; McDonald’s omega = .89) across student gender (strong invariance). Additionally, the structural equation modeling analysis revealed only 1 parameter moderated by the students’ gender (latent mean of ownership). The hypotheses were supported, such that ownership in exercise was more strongly correlated with PE satisfaction (r = .87) and empowerment in exercise had a stronger correlation with physical activity satisfaction (r = .92). Conclusion: These results support the beneficial effect a satisfying experience in PE can have on students’ satisfaction with physical activity outside of school.     

Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Performance Among Young Adults in a Higher Education Setting

Purpose: Acute benefits of aerobic exercise on executive functioning have been reported frequently under laboratory conditions. However, to date, a beneficial effect on long-term memory has been less well supported and no data are available regarding nonlaboratory conditions in young adults. The aim of the current study was to investigate acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive functioning in a university classroom setting. Method: Using a cross-over design, 51 participants performed a bout of moderately intense running (RUN) and read an article while seated (CON). Afterwards, they completed free-recall tests, followed by a Flanker task and an n-back task. Results: Participants in the RUN condition compared with those in the CON condition showed shorter reaction time on the inhibition task, F(1, 50) = 5.59, p = .022, η² = .101, and recalled more words in the immediate- and delayed-recall tests, F(1, 50) = 8.40, p = .006, η² = .144. Conclusion: The present findings suggest that a moderately intense bout of aerobic exercise benefits verbal short-term and long-term memory as well as inhibitory control among students in a classroom setting.     

Effect of Manual Guidance on Acquiring a New Bimanual Coordination Pattern

Purpose: This study explored the relationship between the caring climate, empathy, prosocial behaviors, and antisocial behaviors, like bullying, in physical education, plus investigated whether empathy mediated the possible relationships between caring and social behaviors for boys and girls. Method: Middle school physical education students (N = 528) completed measures assessing a caring climate, empathy, social behaviors, and bullying. Results: A partial mediation model was supported, χ²(94) = 206.82, p < .001, comparative fit index = .97, Tucker-Lewis index = .96, root mean square error of approximation = .05, standardized root mean squared residual = .04, which was also invariant across sexes. A perceived caring climate positively predicted prosocial behavior and cognitive empathy and negatively predicted antisocial behavior, like bullying. Cognitive empathy mediated the relationship between caring and prosocial behavior. Conclusions: Collective findings suggest that creating a caring climate is one tool that physical education teachers may use to promote positive behavior.     

A test-retest assessment of the effects of mental load on ratings of affect,arousal and perceived exertion during submaximal cycling

This study aimed to test the effects of mental (i.e. executive) load during a dual physical-mental task on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), affective valence, and arousal. The protocol included two dual tasks with matched physical demands but different executive demands (2-back and oddball), carried out on different days. The procedure was run twice to assess the sensitivity and stability of RPE, valence and arousal across the two trials. Linear mixed-effects analyses showed less positive valence (?0.44 points on average in a 1–9 scale; R_β² = 0.074 [CI90%, 0.052–0.098]), and heightened arousal (+0.13 points on average in a 1–9 scale; R_β² = 0.006 [CI90%, 0.001–0.015]), for the high executive load condition, but showed no effect of mental load on RPE. Separated analyses for the two task trials yielded best-fitting models that were identical across trials for RPE and valence, but not for arousal. Model fitting was improved by assuming a 1-level autoregressive covariance structure for all analyses. In conclusion, executive load during a dual physical-mental task modulates the emotional response to effort, but not RPE. The autoregressive covariance suggests that people tend to anchor estimates on prior ones, which imposes certain limits on scales' usability.     

No effect of acute ingestion of Thai ginseng ( Kaempferia parviflora ) on sprint and endurance exercise performance in humans

Abstract

Thai ginseng, Kaempferia parviflora, is widely believed among the Mong hill tribe to reduce perceived effort and improve physical work capacity. Kaempferia parviflora is consumed before their daily work. Therefore, we conducted an acute study on the effects of K. parviflora on repeated bouts of sprint exercise and on endurance exercise time to exhaustion. Two studies were conducted in college males using a randomized, double-blind, crossover design. Ninety minutes after consumption of K. parviflora or a starch placebo, participants in study 1 (n = 19) completed three consecutive maximum 30-s sprint cycling Wingate tests, separated by 3 min recovery, while participants in study 2 (n = 16) performed submaximal cycling exercise to exhaustion. Peak and mean power output decreased with successive Wingate tests, while percent fatigue and blood lactate concentration increased after the third Wingate test (P < 0.05). There were no detectable differences in any measures with or without K. parviflora. There was also no effect of K. parviflora on time to exhaustion, rating of perceived exertion or heart rate during submaximal exercise. Our results indicate that acute ingestion of K. parviflora failed to improve exercise performance during repeated sprint exercise or submaximal exercise to exhaustion. However, chronic effects or actions in other populations cannot be excluded.     

The validity of the commercially-available,low-cost,wrist-worn Movband accelerometer during treadmill exercise and free-living physical activity

Low-cost physical activity monitors may provide a more accurate measure of physical activity than subjective methods (e.g., self-report) while being less costly than research-grade accelerometers. The present study assessed the validity of a low-cost monitor (Movband 2) to estimate physical activity behavior/intensity. Participants (N = 23, n = 16 female, BMI = 22.9 ± 4.0 kg/m², age = 21.9 ± 1.6 years) completed four, five-minute treadmill stages (2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 MPH) while wearing both the Movband and the previously-validated Actigraph monitor. Oxygen consumption (VO₂) was recorded during each stage (Laboratory assessment). A subset (n = 15, n = 10 female, BMI = 22.2 ± 3.2 kg/m², age = 21.5 ± 0.8 years) of these participants then wore the two accelerometers for three days (Free-living assessment). During the Laboratory assessment there were strong, significant (r = 0.94, p ≤ 0.001) relationships between Movband and Actigraph counts and VO₂. During Free-living assessment there was also a strong, significant (r = 0.97, p < 0.001) correlation between Movband and Actigraph counts. The low-cost, Movband accelerometer appears to provide a valid assessment of physical activity behavior/intensity.     

Recovery Responses to Maximal Exercise in Healthy-Weight Children and Children With Obesity

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine differences in heart rate recovery (HRRec) and oxygen consumption recovery (VO₂ recovery) between young healthy-weight children and children with obesity following a maximal volitional graded exercise test (GXTmax). Method: Twenty healthy-weight children and 13 children with obesity completed body composition testing and performed a GXTmax. Immediately after the GXTmax, HRRec and VO₂ recovery were measured each minute for 5 consecutive minutes. Results: There were no statistically significant group differences in HRRec for the 5 min following maximal exercise, Wilks’s Lambda = .885, F(4, 28) = 0.911, p = .471, between the healthy-weight children and children with obesity despite statistically significant differences in body fat percentage (BF%; healthy-weight children, 18.5 ± 6.1%; children with obesity, 41.1 ± 6.9%, p < .001) and aerobic capacity relative to body mass (VO₂ peak; healthy-weight children, 46.8 ± 8.2 mL/kg/min; children with obesity, 31.9 ± 4.7 mL/kg/min, p < .001). There were statistically significant differences in VO₂ recovery for the 5 min following exercise, Wilks’s Lambda = .676, F(4, 26) = 3.117, p = .032. There were no statistically significant correlations between HRRec and body mass index (BMI), BF%, VO₂peak, or physical activity. Conclusions: In a healthy pediatric population, obesity alone does not seem to significantly impact HRRec, and because HRRec was not related to obesity status, BMI, or BF%, it should not be used as the sole indicator of aerobic capacity or health status in children. Using more than one recovery variable (i.e., HRRec and VO₂ recovery) may provide greater insight into cardiorespiratory fitness in this population.     

Effects of Different Chair-Based Exercises on Salivary Biomarkers and Functional Autonomy in Institutionalized Older Women

Purpose: The aim of this study was to test the effects of chair-based exercise programs on salivary stress hormones, physical fitness, and functional autonomy of institutionalized older women. Method: In total, 47 participants (80 ± 8.04 years old) were recruited and allocated into three groups: chair-based aerobic exercises (CAE, n = 19), chair-based elastic-band strength exercises (CSE, n = 15), and a control group (CG, n = 13). A 14-week exercise intervention was done for the CAE and CSE groups, two times per week, in no consecutive days. Members of the CG did not participate in any type of exercise but kept their regular lifestyle. Fear of falling, autonomy, physical fitness, salivary cortisol, and alpha-amylase levels were assessed before and after the intervention. Results: The CAE group improved upper and lower body strength, agility–dynamic balance, and autonomy, with fear of falling decreasing significantly (p < .05, moderate effect size). Both exercise groups showed a trend toward an increase in salivary alpha-amylase levels (CAE = 43%, d = .31, and CSE = 44%, d = .41). Conclusion: Both exercise programs were able to improve functional autonomy, even in elders older than 80 years of age. It might be interesting to investigate the effectiveness of combining both aerobic and strength exercises in a unique protocol. The modulation effect of exercise in the hormonal responses needs to be further explored.     

Resting Bradycardia,Enhanced Postexercise Heart Rate Recovery and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Recreational Ballroom Dancers

Purpose: In a cross-sectional study design, we evaluated the resting heart rate (HR_baseline) and exercise and postexercise stress test-related chronotropic responses in male practitioners of recreational ballroom dancing (BD; n = 25, M_age = 26.6 ± 6.1 years) compared to a control group of insufficiently active nondancers (CG; n = 25, M_age = 25.9 ± 4.5 years). Method: All participants underwent a submaximal exercise test. At 85% of the maximal predicted HR, the recovery protocol was started, and heart rate recovery (HRR) was recorded during 1-min intervals for 5 min. Results: Compared with CG, BD showed lower HR_baseline (70 beats per minute [bpm] vs. 62 bpm, respectively, U = 143, p < .05, ES = .46), lower preexercise HR (94 bpm vs. 86 bpm, U = 157, p < .05, ES = .42), longer exercise test duration (346 s vs. 420 s, U = 95.5, p < .05, ES = .59), and higher HRR for 5 min postexercise (U = 1.29–1.89, p < .05, ES = .33–.50) as follows: 1st min (32 bpm vs. 40 bpm), 2nd min (45 bpm vs. 53 bpm), 3rd min (51 bpm vs. 58 bpm), 4th min (55 bpm vs. 59 bpm), and 5th min (59 bpm vs. 63 bpm). The coefficient of HRR from the 1st min to the 5th min postexercise was similar in both groups (U = 229–311, p > .05, ES = < .10–.22). Conclusion: Heightened cardiovascular functional status characterized by favorable enhanced chronotropic dynamics appears to occur in practitioners of recreational ballroom dancing, which suggests that this modality of exercise may result in health benefits.     

White Blood Cell Counts Mediate the Effects of Physical Activity on Prostate-Specific Antigen Levels

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine whether white blood cell (WBC) level mediated the relationship between physical activity and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels. Method: Data from the 2003–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used; 1,726 U.S. adult men (aged 40 years or older) provided complete data on the study variables. Participants wore an ActiGraph 7164 accelerometer for a 7-day period to measure their physical activity behavior, and PSA and WBC levels were obtained from a blood sample. Results: After adjustments, results showed that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was inversely associated with WBC count (b = ? .03; 95% CI [ ? 0.04, ? 0.006; p = .01), and WBC count (b = .10; 95% CI [0.009, 0.18; p = .04) was positively associated with PSA. Both the Sobel (coef. = ? .004, SE = .002; z = ? 2.0; p = .03) and the Aroian (coef. = ? .004, SE = .002; z = ? 1.9; p = .03) tests demonstrated that WBC mediated the relationship between physical activity and PSA. Additionally, among 107 participants with prostate cancer, survivors engaging in more MVPA had lower levels of WBC (b = ? .04; 95% CI [ ? 0.09, ? 0.0009; p = .04). Conclusion Physical activity may influence PSA levels through WBC modulation; however, future research is needed to determine the direction of causality. Additionally, prostate cancer survivors engaging in higher levels of MVPA had lower levels of WBC, underscoring the importance of promoting physical activity among prostate cancer survivors.     

Predicting Physical Activity Among Children: Investigating Interaction Effects in the Theory of Planned Behavior

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been criticized for not including interactions between the variables assumed to predict behavior. This study sought to test how TPB variables interact to predict physical activity (PA) in children. Method: Four hundred thirty-eight children (M_age = 8.6 years, SD = 1.6 years) completed a TPB questionnaire and a PA questionnaire at Time 1. The PA measure was repeated 2 months later. Path analyses were performed to test the hypothesized model including interaction terms between TPB variables. Simple slopes analyses were also carried out to examine the statistically significant interaction terms. Results: Path analyses confirmed the classical hypotheses of TPB (R² for intentions = .39, R² for PA = .12) and also demonstrated only statistically significant Attitudes × Perceived Behavioral Control and Subjective Norms × Attitudes interactions (R² change for intentions = .01, p = .009). Simple slopes analyses revealed that the strength of the association between perceived behavioral control and intentions was only statistically significantly higher (t = 2.18, p = .05, d = 0.34, 95% CI [0.03, 0.65]) when attitudes were high compared with when attitudes were low. The link between attitudes and intentions was only statistically significant at a low level of subjective norms but not at a high level. Conclusion: The integration of interaction effects between TPB variables did not increase for the variance of PA explained by the model. More research appears to be necessary to explore how the TPB could be augmented to better predict PA in children.     

Effects of intense exercise on the physiological and mental condition of female university judoists during a training camp

Abstract

To clarify the physical and mental fatigue caused by intense exercise and the relationship between the two types of fatigue, we examined changes in anthropometric and biochemical variables, neutrophil function, and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire in 13 female university judoists attending a one-week training camp. Blood glucose, total cholesterol, haemoglobin, leukocyte count, IgG, and phagocytic activity all decreased after the training camp compared with baseline (P ≤ 0.046). Aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, and neutrophil oxidative burst activity increased after the training camp (P ≤ 0.007). Of the POMS scores, that for Fatigue increased after the training camp (P = 0.041) and that for Vigour decreased (P = 0.042). The changes in several POMS scores correlated with the changes in blood biochemical variables. In particular, the change in Total mood disturbance was negatively associated with changes in myogenic enzymes (P ≤ 0.032). Our results suggest that intense exercise during training camps for female judoists leads to the appearance and accumulation of mental and physical fatigue, which are related to each other.     

The Influence of Exercise Intensity on Postexercise Baroreflex Sensitivity

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of exercise intensity on postexercise supine and tilt baroreflex sensitivity (BRS). Method: Nine healthy, active men performed 2 conditions of interval cycling of 40% maximal work rate (WR_max) and 75% WR_max of matched work done and a control condition of no exercise in a counterbalanced order. BRS outcome measures were determined at preexercise and postexercise up to +24 hr in supine and tilt positions. R-R interval and blood pressure data were collected over consecutive 10-min periods and were analyzed by Fast Fourier transformation analysis. Results: A fully repeated analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction (p < .05) between time and condition in supine for BRS_αLF, F(3, 134) = 5.19, p < .05, ES = .39, and BRS_TFTG, F(3, 134) = 5.65, p < .05, ES = .41, and in tilt for BRS_UpUp, F(3, 134) = 3.54, p < .05, ES = .31, BRS_DownDown, F(3, 134) = 5.94, p < .05, ES = .43, BRS_αLF, F(4, 134) = 6.23, p < .05, ES = .44, and BRS_TFTG, F(4, 134) = 9.22, p < .05, ES = .54. There were significant differences (p < .05) between condition comparisons at +15 min and between control and 75% WR_max and between the 40% WR_max and 75% WR_max conditions at +60 min. At +15 min, BRS was lower in the 75% WR_max condition compared with the 40% WR_max condition and the control condition, and it was lower in the 40% WR_max condition than in the control condition. Conclusion: The findings demonstrate an intensity-dependent relationship in the BRS response following exercise.     

The Acute Exercise-Induced Inflammatory Response: A Comparison of Young-Adult Smokers and Nonsmokers

Purpose: This study examined postexercise inflammatory and leukocyte responses in smokers and nonsmokers, as well as the effects of cigarette smoking on the acute postexercise inflammatory and leukocyte response in habitual smokers. Method: Eleven recreationally active male smokers and 11 nonsmokers matched for age and aerobic fitness were familiarized and underwent baseline fitness testing. Participants then completed 40 min of cycling at 50% peak aerobic workload. Smokers performed 2 randomized exercise sessions, including an acute postexercise smoking condition (2 cigarettes in 15 min of 12 mg tar and 1 mg nicotine) and a no-smoking condition, while nonsmokers performed 1 exercise session without smoking. Venous blood was obtained preexercise and postexercise for analysis of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1 receptor antagonist (ra), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and c-reactive protein (CRP). Results: No differences existed between groups for resting CRP (d = 0.25–0.46; p = .374–.617). Despite no baseline difference (d = 0.03–0.07; p = .141–.70), exercise-induced increases were observed for IL-1 ra in smokers (d = 0.50; p = .024–.033), which was not observed in the never-smoker group. No between-group difference was observed for IL-6 across all points (d = 0.09–0.5; p = .102–.728); however, all groups observed significant within-group change (d = 0.27–1.09; p = .001–.042). Further, TNF-α for smokers smoking was elevated above both smokers not smoking and nonsmokers at baseline and across the protocol (d = 1.20–1.80; d = 0.20–1.0; p = .001–.035). Additionally, a marked postexercise increase in leukocyte and neutrophil concentrations was evident in smokers smoking compared with nonsmokers and smokers not smoking as indicated by a moderate-to-large effect size (d = 0.72; d = 0.78). Conclusion: Consequently, male smokers exhibit an altered postexercise proinflammatory profile compared with age- and fitness-matched nonsmokers.     

Interpreting Youth Baseball: Players' Understandings of Fun and Excitement,Danger, and Boredom

Purpose: There is demand in applied sport settings to measure recovery briefly and accurately. Research indicates mood disturbance as the strongest psychological predictor of mental and physical recovery. The Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) is a shortened version of the Profile of Mood States that can be completed in less than 30 s. The purpose of this study was to examine the BAM as a quick measure of mood in relation to recovery status in elite rugby players alongside established physiological markers of recovery. Method: Using elite rugby union players (N = 12), this study examined the utility of BAM as an indicator of mental and physical recovery in elite athletes by exploring pattern change in mood disturbance, energy index, power output, cortisol, and testosterone 36 hr before and 12 hr, 36 hr, and 60 hr after a competitive rugby match. Results: Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant changes in all variables across the 4 time points (p < .05, η² range = .20–.48), concurrent with previous study findings. Although visual inspection of the graphs indicated that the pattern of change for mood disturbance and energy index mapped changes in all physiological variables, only a low correlation was observed for power output (r = ? .34). Conclusions: Although BAM scores changed significantly over time in accordance with the hypotheses, further testing is required to confirm the utility of the BAM as a measure of recovery. The results indicate that the BAM could be used as 1 indicator of recovery status alongside other measures.     

The effect of acute caffeine ingestion on upper body anaerobic exercise and cognitive performance

Abstract

The current study examined the effect of acute caffeine ingestion on mean and peak power production during upper body Wingate test (WANT) performance, rating of perceived exertion, readiness to invest effort and cognitive performance. Using a double-blind design, 12 males undertook upper body WANTs, following ingestion of caffeine (5?mg*kg^?1) or placebo. Pre-substance ingestion, 60?mins post substance ingestion and post exercise participants completed measures of readiness to invest physical and mental effort and cognitive performance. Peak power was significantly higher (P?=?.026), fatigue index greater (P?=?.02) and rating of perceived exertion lower (P?=?.025) in the presence of caffeine. Readiness to invest physical effort was also higher (P?=?.016) in the caffeine condition irrespective of time point (pre, 60?mins post ingestion and post exercise). Response accuracy for incongruent trials on the Flanker task was superior in the presence of caffeine (P?=?.006). There was a significant substance?×?time interaction for response speed in both congruent and incongruent conditions (both P?=?.001) whereby response speeds were faster at 60?mins post ingestion and post exercise in the caffeine condition, compared to placebo. This is the first study to examine the effects of caffeine ingestion on this modality of exercise and suggests that caffeine ingestion significantly enhances peak power, readiness to invest physical effort, and cognitive performance during WANT performance.     

Influences of volitional and forced intentions on physical activity and effort within the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract

In the present study, we examined the utility of volitional and forced intentions in predicting participation in physical activities and effort within the theory of planned behaviour. Four hundred and forty-four participants (184 males, 260 females) aged 19.1 ± 3.3 years (mean ± s) completed self-report measures of intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, volitional intentions, forced intentions, and past behaviour in a physical activity context. Six weeks later, they completed self-report measures of physical activity behaviour and effort. Results indicated that volitional intentions and forced intentions contributed to the prediction of effort over and above intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, perceptions of control, past behaviour, and the product terms of attitudes×intentions and subjective norms×intentions. Volitional intentions and forced intentions did not predict participation in physical activities over and above effort. We concluded that volitional intentions and forced intentions assist in the explanation of effort in the context of physical activity behaviour.     

Motivational priming as a strategy for maximising exercise outcomes: effects on exercise goals and engagement

Abstract

Using a scrambled sentence priming protocol, the first aim of this study was to investigate whether differences in novel exercise-related goals existed between participants primed with motivational or non-motivational material (i.e. autonomous, controlled or neutral primes). The second aim was to explore whether an indirect effect was present between priming condition and the goal-related exercise sessions that individuals performed over the week following administration of the prime. No effects were observed across priming conditions with respect to subjective vitality, goal concordance and the frequency with which participants planned to exercise. However, autonomy-primed individuals set goals for their exercise sessions that were significantly longer in intended duration (M = 57.72 min, SD = 37.42) than those set by their counterparts in both the controlled-prime condition (M = 44.12 min, SD = 27.78) and the neutral-prime condition (M = 37.10 min, SD = 20.47). Bootstrapped analyses also revealed a significant indirect relationship between prime and exercise behaviour, with the autonomy prime predicting longer goal-based exercise sessions, via the effect on the duration of participants’ intended exercise sessions. These findings highlight the potential influence that priming autonomous motivation may have on individuals’ exercise aspirations, as well as the way in which primes may indirectly shape exercise engagement.     

Misremembering Past Affect Predicts Adolescents’ Future Affective Experience During Exercise

Purpose: Increasing physical activity among adolescents is a public health priority. Because people are motivated to engage in activities that make them feel good, this study examined predictors of adolescents’ feelings during exercise. Method: During the 1st semester of the school year, we assessed 6th-grade students’ (N = 136) cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise. Participants also reported their affect during a cardiovascular fitness test and recalled their affect during the fitness test later that semester. During the 2nd semester, the same participants rated their affect during a moderate-intensity exercise task. Results: Affect reported during the moderate-intensity exercise task was predicted by cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise and by misremembering affect during the fitness test as more positive than it actually was. This memory bias mediated the association between appraising exercise as important and experiencing a positive change in affect during the moderate-intensity exercise task. Conclusion: These findings highlight the roles of both cognitive appraisals and memory as factors that may influence affect during exercise. Future work should explore whether affect during exercise can be modified by targeting appraisals and memories related to exercise experiences.     

Better Economy on Indoor Track Compared to Treadmill Running With 1% Inclination

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in metabolic responses between the track and the treadmill (1% inclination) running. The latter is recommended for use in laboratory settings to mimic outdoor running. Method: Seventeen male endurance athletes (mean 25.8, s = 3.8 years) performed 4-min running bouts on an indoor track and the treadmill. Results: At all speeds (11, 13, and 15 km·h^?1) athletes showed better economy on the track running compared to the treadmill expressed as oxygen (7.9%, 5.2%, and 2.8%) and caloric (7.0%, 5.3%, and 2.6%) unit cost. Rating of perceived exertion was evaluated substantially higher at all speeds on the treadmill (F(1,16) = 31.45, p < .001, η²_p = .663) compared to running on the track. Participants presented lower heart rate (F(1,16) = 13.74, p = .002, η²_p = .462) on the track at the speed of 11 and 13 km·h^?1 compared to the treadmill, but not at 15 km·h^?1 (p = .021). Conclusions: We conclude that constant inclination (i.e.. 1%) during the treadmill test might not be suitable to reproduce comparable effort to running on the track; rather, there is an optimal treadmill inclination for different intensities to reproduce similar effort compared to the track running.