The moral disengagement in sport scale–short

Abstract

A scale has recently been developed to measure moral disengagement in sport (Boardley & Kavussanu, 2007 Boardley, I. D. and Kavussanu, M. 2007. Development and validation of the Moral Disengagement in Sport Scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29: 608–628. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). It consists of 32 items that measure the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement proposed by Bandura (1991 Bandura, A. 1991. “Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action”. In Handbook of moral behaviour and development: Theory, research, and applications, Edited by: Kurtines, W. M. and Gewirtz, J. L. Vol. 1, 71–129. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  [Google Scholar]). In the present study, we aimed to: (a) examine whether a subset of these items could form a short version of the scale; (b) provide evidence for the construct validity of the short version; and (c) test its measurement invariance across sex and sport type. A total of 992 football, rugby, hockey, basketball, and netball players from three different samples completed the long version of the scale. Data analyses indicated that the short version of the scale consisted of eight items and had high internal consistency. Construct validity of the scale was evidenced via correlations with sport moral disengagement and prosocial and antisocial behaviour. Multisample confirmatory factor analyses established measurement invariance across sex and partial measurement invariance across four team sports. In conclusion, the short version of the scale is a reliable and valid measure of moral disengagement in sport.     

Validity and Reliability of the School Physical Activity Environment Questionnaire

The goal of the current study was to establish the factor validity of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment (Robertson-Wilson, Lévesque, & Holden, 2007 Robertson-Wilson, J., Lévesque, L. and Holden, R. R. 2007. Development of a questionnaire assessing school physical activity environment. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 11: 93–107. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) using confirmatory factor analysis procedures. Another goal was to establish internal reliability and test–retest reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis results of this study supported a slightly altered version of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment's school physical activity environment subscale. Internal reliability was adequate, while test–retest reliability was questionable. In brief, the pattern of findings indicated that while the original Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment is likely adequate for some research purposes, a slightly modified version (Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment-R) was psychometrically stronger. However, given the distinct differences in samples used in the original validation study and the current study, more research on the psychometric properties of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment is needed to determine if the current results and Robertson-Wilson et al.'s (2007 Robertson-Wilson, J., Lévesque, L. and Holden, R. R. 2007. Development of a questionnaire assessing school physical activity environment. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 11: 93–107. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) results are sample specific.     

Disciplinarity and sport science in Europe: A statistical and sociological study of ECSS conference abstracts

Abstract

Abstracts of European College of Sports Science conferences (1995–2014) are studied. The number of abstracts has been increasing regularly (+90 per year). This rise is in recent years largely due to extra-European countries. The magnitude and accumulation of the different topics of discussion are examined. An operational criterion determines four stages of evolution of a topic: social network, cluster, specialty, and discipline. The scientific production can, therefore, be classified as disciplinary or non-disciplinary. The disciplinary part is more important but has been less dynamic recently. The cognitive content of sport science is then explored through a multidimensional scaling of the topics based on the keywords used in the abstracts. Three areas are visible: social sciences and humanities, sports medicine and physiology, and biomechanics and neurophysiology. According to the field theory of Bourdieu (1975 Bourdieu, P. (1975). The specificity of the scientific field and the social condition of the progress of reason. Social Science Information, 14(6), 19–47. doi:10.1177/053901847501400602[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), three scientific habitus are distinguished. The logic of academic disciplinary excellence is the consequence of the autonomy of this scientific field, its closure, peer-review process, and barriers to entry. The distribution of scientific capital and professional capital is unequal across the three areas. Basically, conservation strategies of academic disciplinary excellence are predicted in biomechanics and neurophysiology, subversion strategies of interdisciplinarity based on professional concerns can appear in the sports medicine and physiology area, and critical strategies of interdisciplinarity based on social utility in social sciences and humanities. Moreover, additional tensions within these areas are depicted. Lastly methods based on co-citations of disciplines and boundary objects are proposed to find tangible patterns of multidisciplinarity confirming these strategies.     

A Comparison of Physical Self-Perception Profile Questionnaire Formats: Structured Alternative and Ordered Response Scale Formats

This study assessed the performance of the original version of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP; Fox & Corbin, 1989 Fox, K. R. and Corbin, C. B. 1989. The Physical Self-Perception Profile: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11: 408–430. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) as compared to a revised version. University students (N?=?259) participated in the study, each answering and comparing the clarity of the original and a revised PSPP. While participants found the revised version to be significantly clearer, it performed similarly to the original in select analyses of internal consistency and construct validity. The original structured alternative format did not have lower levels of socially desirable responding, as compared to the Likert-type ordered response scale format of the revised PSPP. Because the revised version was deemed clearer, performed similarly to the original on select psychometric analyses, and did not have any data loss, there is merit in further examining additional validity and reliability evidence for the revised PSPP.     

An investigation of the five-factor model of personality and coping behaviour in sport

Abstract

Coping strategies are important for performance in sport and individual differences may contribute to the coping strategies adopted by athletes. In this study, we explored the main and interactive effects of the big five personality dimensions on sport-related coping and compared personality profiles of discrete groups of athletes. Altogether, 253 athletes (mean age 21.1 years, s = 3.7) completed the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1992 Costa, P. T. and McCrae, R. R. 1992. Revised NEO personality inventory and NEO five-factor inventory: Professional manual, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.  [Google Scholar]), and the Coping Function Questionnaire for Sport (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001 Kowalski, K. C. and Crocker, P. R. E. 2001. Development and validation of the Coping Function Questionnaire for adolescents in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23: 136–155. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Results showed that extraverted athletes, who were also emotionally stable and open to new experiences (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of problem-focused coping strategies. Conscientious athletes (main effect), and athletes displaying high levels of extraversion, openness, and agreeableness (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of emotion-focused coping strategies, and athletes with low levels of openness, or high levels of neuroticism (main effects), reported a greater use of avoidance coping strategies. Different personality characteristics were observed between higher-level and lower-level athletes, between men and women athletes, and between individual and team sport athletes. These findings suggest that the five-factor model of personality can help distinguish various levels of athletic involvement and can help identify the coping strategies athletes are likely to adopt during participation.     

Goal orientation profile differences on perceived motivational climate,perceived peer relationships,and motivation-related responses of youth athletes

Abstract

The aims of this study were twofold: (a) to determine if dispositional achievement goal orientation profiles that are reported in the literature would be observed in a sample of youth athletes, and (b) to examine potential achievement goal orientation profile differences on perceptions of the motivational climate, perceptions of peer relationships, and motivation-related responses. Male soccer players (n = 223) aged 9–12 years (mean = 10.9, s = 0.6) completed a multi-section questionnaire containing assessments of dispositional goal (task, ego) orientations, the perceived task- and ego-involving features of the motivational climate, perceived peer acceptance and friendship quality (positive friendship quality, conflict), perceived ability, soccer enjoyment, and satisfaction with one's performance and the team. Four profiles were observed that closely matched those observed by Hodge and Petlichkoff (2000 Hodge, K. and Petlichkoff, L. 2000. Goal profiles in sport motivation: A cluster analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22: 256–272. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), though in the present study a lower proportion of participants exhibited achievement goal profiles consisting of relatively high ego orientation. Achievement goal profile differences were found for all variables except positive friendship quality, with a general trend for those reporting relatively lower task goal orientation to exhibit less adaptive responses. Overall, the findings support achievement goal frameworks (e.g. Nicholls, 1989 Nicholls, J. G. 1989. The competitive ethos and democratic education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  [Google Scholar]) and suggest that further examination of dispositional achievement goals may afford a deeper understanding of social relationships and motivational processes in youth sport.     

Fitting Multidimensional Amotivation into the Self-Determination Theory Nomological Network: Application in School Physical Education

The present study investigated the nomological validity of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education (Shen, Wingert, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010b Shen, B., Wingert, R. K., Li, W., Sun, H. and Rukavina, P. B. 2010b. An amotivation model in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 29: 72–84. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) scores by examining the associations of ability, effort, value, and task characteristics amotivation beliefs with self-determination theory variables. Data were collected from 401 fifth- and sixth-grade students, 416 middle-school students, and 401 high-school students. After providing support for the correlated four-factor structure, the hierarchical structure, internal consistency, and composite reliability of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education scores, large negative correlations emerged with perceived autonomy support by the PE teacher; needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness; identified regulation; intrinsic motivation; and students' subjective vitality. Strong positive correlations were obtained with unidimensional amotivation and external regulation, and weak correlations were obtained with introjected regulation. Also, multidimensional amotivation beliefs partially mediated the relationship between the need for autonomy and subjective vitality. The results provided support for the nomological aspect of construct validity of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education scores.     

Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education (TARE): Instrument Development,Content Validity,and Inter-Rater Reliability

Numerous scholars have stressed the importance of personal and social responsibility in physical activity settings; however, there is a lack of instrumentation to study the implementation of responsibility-based teaching strategies. The development, content validity, and initial inter-rater reliability testing of the Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education (TARE) are described here. Inter-rater agreement was calculated for paired observations focused on 2 different teachers delivering a total of 18 separate physical education lessons for students in grades 1 through 6. Findings indicate that the Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education provides scores with adequate inter-rater reliability. The procedures employed in this study proved feasible and enable observers to characterize the implementation of responsibility-based teaching in physical education. The Tool for Assessing Responsibility-Based Education has numerous research and training applications relative to the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (Hellison, 2003 Hellison, D. 2003. Teaching responsibility through physical activity, 2nd, 15–38. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  [Google Scholar]) and the national content standards for K–12 physical education, specifically Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2004 National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2004. Moving into the future. National standards for physical education, 2nd, 39–43. Reston, VA: Author.  [Google Scholar]).     

The Development of a Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM)

The aim of this research was to develop an exercise-related goal orientation measure in an attempt to further researchers' and practitioners' current understanding of individuals' motivation to exercise for health and recreational purposes. The Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM) was developed to assess individuals' proneness to endorse task or ego goals. Participants included 372 males and females from 16 recreational physical activity clubs in Southeast England. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the two-factor model and demonstrated invariance between sexes. Internal consistency for task and ego subscales was .78 and .88, respectively, while correlations between the goal orientations and behavioral regulations (Markland & Tobin, 2004 Markland, D. and Tobin, V. 2004. A modification to the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26: 191–196. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) served to provide initial evidence for the construct validity of the measure. The development of the GOEM may allow for a broader understanding of the motivational processes implicated in exercise-related domains.     

The need for ‘representative task design’ in evaluating efficacy of skills tests in sport: A comment on Russell,Benton and Kingsley (2010)

Abstract

Russell, Benton and Kingsley (2010 Russell, M., Benton, D. and Kingsley, M. 2010. Reliability and construct validity of soccer skills tests that measure passing, shooting, and dribbling. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(13): 1399–1408. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) recently suggested a new association football test comprising three different tasks for the evaluation of players' passing, dribbling and shooting skills. Their stated intention was to enhance ‘ecological validity’ of current association football skills tests allowing generalisation of results from the new protocols to performance constraints that were ‘representative’ of experiences during competitive game situations. However, in this comment we raise some concerns with their use of the term ‘ecological validity’ to allude to aspects of ‘representative task design’. We propose that in their paper the authors confused understanding of environmental properties, performance achievement and generalisability of the test and its outcomes. Here, we argue that the tests designed by Russell and colleagues did not include critical sources of environmental information, such as the active role of opponents, which players typically use to organise their actions during performance. Static tasks which are not representative of the competitive performance environment may lead to different emerging patterns of movement organisation and performance outcomes, failing to effectively evaluate skills performance in sport.     

Interpretation and application of the offside law by expert assistant referees: Perception of spatial positions in complex dynamic events on and off the field

Abstract

Baldo et al. (2002 Baldo, M. V. C., Ranvaud, R. D. and Morya, E. 2002. Flag errors in soccer games: The flash-lag effect brought to real life. Perception, 31: 1205–1210. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Helsen et al. (2006 Helsen, W., Gilis, B. and Weston, M. 2006. Errors in judging “offside” in association football: Test of the optical error versus the perceptual flash-lag hypothesis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24: 521–528. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) considered the flash-lag effect to explain errors made by assistant referees when judging offside in association football. The main aims of the present study were as follows: (1) to determine whether the flash-lag effect emerges in offside situations on the field of play or off the field when presented as computer animations or as video footage of real-life matches; (2) to examine offside decision-making errors in two standards of assistant referee – international FIFA and Belgian national referees. The results support the flash-lag hypothesis in several ways. First, both the FIFA and Belgian assistant referees were more likely to make errors by raising their flag when they had to assess offside situations on the field of play and when presented as three-a-side computer animations. Second, more flag errors were made when the defender moved in the opposite direction to that of the attacker. Third, the strategy of raising the flag in case of doubt was not observed when an interpretation of the offside law had to be made about the involvement of play of an attacker. Future research is needed to examine the extent to which on- and off-the-field training sessions can be used as training tools to improve offside decision-making.     

Validity and Reliability of Trichotomous Achievement Goal Scale

The Trichotomous Achievement Goal Scale was developed by Agbuga and Xiang (2008 Agbuga, B. and Xiang, P. 2008. Achievement goals and their relations to self-reported persistence/effort in secondary physical education: A trichotomous achievement goal framework. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 27: 179–191. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) by including selected items from the scales of Duda and Nicholls (1992 Duda, J. L. and Nicholls, J. 1992. Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84: 290–299. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), Elliot (1999 Elliot, A. J. 1999. Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34: 169–189. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and Elliot and Church (1997 Elliot, A. J. and Church, M. A. 1997. A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72: 218–232. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and adapting them into Turkish. The scale consists of 18 items, and students rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale. To ascertain the validity and reliability of the Trichotomous Achievement Goal Scale, it was administered to 845 female and 861 male Turkish high school students attending three public schools in the 2008–2009 spring semester. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted, and Cronbach's alpha and Fornell and Larcker's (1981 Fornell, C. and Larcker, D. F. 1981. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18: 39–50. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) criteria were tested on the items that measured the students' achievements, screening for the three distinct types of achievement goals proposed by the trichotomous framework. Based on the results of the study, the 16-item Trichotomous Achievement Goal Scale can be claimed as a valid a reliable scale.     

Redesign and initial validation of an instrument to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise: The Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2

Abstract

In the present study, a measure to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise was redesigned, extending previous research efforts (Karageorghis et al., 1999 Karageorghis, C. I., Terry, P. C. and Lane, A. M. 1999. Development and initial validation of an instrument to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport: The Brunel Music Rating Inventory. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17: 713–724. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The original measure, the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI), had shown limitations in its factor structure and its applicability to non-experts in music selection. Redesign of the BMRI used in-depth interviews with eight participants (mean age 31.9 years, s = 8.9 years) to establish the initial item pool, which was examined using a series of confirmatory factor analyses. A single-factor model provided a good fit across three musical selections with different motivational qualities (comparative fit index, CFI: 0.95–0.98; standardized root mean residual, SRMR: 0.03–0.05). The single-factor model also demonstrated acceptable fit across two independent samples and both sexes using one piece of music (CFI: 0.86–1.00; SRMR: 0.04–0.07). The BMRI was designed for experts in selecting music for exercise (e.g. dance aerobic instructors), whereas the BMRI-2 can be used both by exercise instructors and participants. The psychometric properties of the BMRI-2 are stronger than those of the BMRI and it is easier to use. The BMRI-2 provides a valid and internally consistent tool by which music can be selected to accompany a bout of exercise or a training session. Furthermore, the BMRI-2 enables researchers to standardize music in experimental protocols involving exercise-related tasks.     

Consequences of players' dismissal in professional soccer: A crisis-related analysis of group-size effects

Abstract

This study documents the effect of players' dismissals on team performance in professional soccer. Our aim was to determine whether the punishment meted out for unacceptable player behaviour results in reduced team performance. The official web site of the German Soccer Association was used for coding data from games played in the first Bundesliga between the 1963 – 64 and 2003 – 04 (n = 41) seasons. A sample of 743 games where at least one red card was issued was used to test hypotheses derived from crisis theory (Bar-Eli & Tenenbaum, 1989a Bar-Eli, M. and Tenenbaum, G. 1989a. A theory of individual psychological crisis in competitive sport. Applied Psychology, 38: 107–120. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Players' dismissals weaken a sanctioned team in terms of the goals and final score following the punishment. The chances of a sanctioned team scoring or winning were substantially reduced following the sanction. Most cards were issued in the later stages of matches. The statistics pertaining to outcome results as a function of game standing, game location, and time phases – all strongly support the view that teams can be considered conceptually similar to individuals regarding the link between stress and performance. To further develop the concept of team and individual psychological performance crisis in competition, it is recommended that reversal theory (Apter, 1982 Apter, M. J. 1982. The experience of motivation: The theory of psychological reversals, London: Academic Press.  [Google Scholar]) and self-monitoring and distraction theories (Baumeister, 1984 Baumeister, R. F. and Steinhilber, A. 1984. Paradoxical effects of supportive audiences on performance under pressure: The home field disadvantage in sports championships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47: 85–93. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) be included in the design of future investigations pertaining to choking under pressure.     

Variable versus constant power strategies during cycling time-trials: Prediction of time savings using an up-to-date mathematical model

Abstract

Swain (1997 Swain, D. P. 1997. A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29: 1104–1108. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) employed the mathematical model of Di Prampero et al. (1979 Di Prampero, P. E., Cortili, G., Mognoni, P. and Saibene, F. 1979. Equation of motion of a cyclist. Journal of Applied Physiology, 47: 201–206. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to predict that, for cycling time-trials, the optimal pacing strategy is to vary power in parallel with the changes experienced in gradient and wind speed. We used a more up-to-date mathematical model with validated coefficients (Martin et al., 1998 Martin, J. C., Milliken, D. L., Cobb, J. E., McFadden, K. L. and Coggan, A. R. 1998. Validation of a mathematical model for road cycling power. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 14: 276–291. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to quantify the time savings that would result from such optimization of pacing strategy. A hypothetical cyclist (mass = 70 kg) and bicycle (mass = 10 kg) were studied under varying hypothetical wind velocities (?10 to 10 m · s^?1), gradients (?10 to 10%), and pacing strategies. Mean rider power outputs of 164, 289, and 394 W were chosen to mirror baseline performances studied previously. The three race scenarios were: (i) a 10-km time-trial with alternating 1-km sections of 10% and ?10% gradient; (ii) a 40-km time-trial with alternating 5-km sections of 4.4 and ?4.4 m · s^?1 wind (Swain, 1997 Swain, D. P. 1997. A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29: 1104–1108. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]); and (iii) the 40-km time-trial delimited by Jeukendrup and Martin (2001 Jeukendrup, A. E. and Martin, J. 2001. Improving cycling performance: How should we spend our time and money?. Sports Medicine, 31: 559–569. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Varying a mean power of 289 W by ± 10% during Swain's (1997 Swain, D. P. 1997. A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29: 1104–1108. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) hilly and windy courses resulted in time savings of 126 and 51 s, respectively. Time savings for most race scenarios were greater than those suggested by Swain (1997 Swain, D. P. 1997. A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29: 1104–1108. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). For a mean power of 289 W over the “standard” 40-km time-trial, a time saving of 26 s was observed with a power variability of 10%. The largest time savings were found for the hypothetical riders with the lowest mean power output who could vary power to the greatest extent. Our findings confirm that time savings are possible in cycling time-trials if the rider varies power in parallel with hill gradient and wind direction. With a more recent mathematical model, we found slightly greater time savings than those reported by Swain (1997 Swain, D. P. 1997. A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29: 1104–1108. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). These time savings compared favourably with the predicted benefits of interventions such as altitude training or ingestion of carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks. Nevertheless, the extent to which such power output variations can be tolerated by a cyclist during a time-trial is still unclear.     

Stressors,coping, and coping effectiveness: Gender,type of sport,and skill differences

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness as a function of gender, type of sport, and skill. The sample consisted of 749 undergraduate athletes (455 males, 294 females) aged 18 – 38 years (mean = 19.8 years). Skill was classified as international/national, county, university, and club standard. Participants completed a stressor and coping concept map (Novak & Gowin, 1984 Novak, J. D. and Gowin, D. B. 1984. Learning how to learn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). The results revealed gender, type of sport, and skill differences in relation to stressor frequencies, coping strategy deployment, and coping effectiveness. In contrast to previous research, females used a variety of problem-focused (e.g. planning, communication, technique-orientated coping) strategies more frequently than males. Team sport athletes reported a variety of sport-specific stressors relating to the demands of playing in a team environment. The group of national/international athletes reported using more planning, blocking, and visualization, and also reported that their coping was more effective than that of less-skilled athletes.     

Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes

Abstract

Although the relative age effect has been widely observed in youth sports (Musch & Grondin, 2001 Musch, J. and Grondin, S. 2001. Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: A review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental Review, 21: 147–167. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), it is unclear whether it generalizes across the lifespan. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative age effect among a population of Masters athletes using archived data. Two successive studies examined the frequency of record-setting achievements (Study 1) and the frequency of participation entries (Study 2) at the US Masters track-and-field and swimming championships as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category. Results of Study 1 indicated that the probability of setting a record increased if Masters athletes were in the first year, and decreased if they were in the third, fourth or fifth year, of an age category. Results of Study 2 indicated that the likelihood of participating in the National championships increased if Masters athletes were in the first or second year, and decreased if they were in the fourth or fifth year, of an age category. We highlight and discuss potential advantages afforded to Masters athletes who are relatively younger than their peers in the same 5-year age category.     

Main and interactive effects of attribution dimensions on efficacy expectations in sport

Abstract

In this study, I examined the main and interactive effects of attribution dimensions on efficacy expectations in sport. A sample of 162 athletes (102 males, 60 females) aged 20.9 years (s = 3.4) from various sports were recruited. The participants, who were of club to international standard, completed the Causal Dimension Scale II (McAuley et al., 1992 McAuley, E., Duncan, T. E. and Russell, D. 1992. Measuring causal attributions: The revised Causal Dimension Scale (CDSII). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18: 566–573. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in relation to their most recent performance. They then completed a 7-item measure of efficacy expectations in relation to their upcoming performance. The key predictors of efficacy expectations were stability and personal control, but their function differed after more or less successful performances. After more successful performances, attributions to stability and personal control were associated with main effects upon efficacy expectations, in a positive direction; after less successful performances, attributions to stability and personal control were associated with an interactive effect upon efficacy expectations. The form of this effect was such that the participants were more likely to have high efficacy expectations only when they viewed the cause of their performances as both personally controllable and stable.     

Planned Missing Data Designs for Spline Growth Models in Salivary Cortisol Research

Salivary cortisol is often used as an index of physiological and psychological stress in exercise science and psychoneuroendocrine research. A primary concern when designing research studies examining cortisol stems from the high cost of analysis. Planned missing data designs involve intentionally omitting a random subset of observations from data collection, reducing both the cost of data collection and participant burden. These designs have the potential to result in more efficient, cost-effective analyses with minimal power loss. Using salivary cortisol data from a previous study (Hogue, Fry, Fry, & Pressman, 2013 Hogue, C. M., Fry, M. D., Fry, A. C. and Pressman, S. D. 2013. The influence of a motivational climate intervention on participants’ salivary cortisol and psychological responses. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35: 85–97. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), this article examines statistical power and estimated costs of six different planned missing data designs using growth curve modeling. Results indicate that using a planned missing data design would have provided the same results at a lower cost relative to the traditional, complete data analysis of salivary cortisol.     

Accuracy of simple predictive equations for visceral fat area after 8 weeks of training

Abstract

We previously proposed two predictive equations of visceral fat area applicable in a field setting (Demura & Sato, 2007a Demura, S. and Sato, S. 2007a. Prediction of visceral fat area at the umbilicus level using fat mass of the trunk: The validity of bioelectrical impedance analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25: 823–833. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007b Demura, S. and Sato, S. 2007b. Prediction of visceral fat area in Japanese adults: Proposal of prediction method applicable in a field setting. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61: 727–735. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). One uses the fat mass of the trunk measured by bioelectrical impedance as the main predictor (equation 1) and the other uses internal fat mass estimated from several anthropometric variables (equation 2). In this study, we examined the inter- and intra-individual accuracy of estimated values using these equations after 8 weeks of exercise training. Participants were 42 Japanese adults aged 42.7 ± 10.3 years (22 males, 20 females). Visceral fat area, body composition, and blood biochemistry were measured at baseline and after 8 weeks. There were no significant differences in reference visceral fat area measured by computed tomography and visceral fat area predicted by the equations either at baseline or after 8 weeks, and the values were highly consistent (equation 1: baseline R ² = 0.829, after R ² = 0.860; equation 2: baseline R ² = 0.832; after R ² = 0.850). No significant relationship was observed between the reference and change in visceral fat area for equation 1 (males: r = 0.272, P > 0.05; females: r = 0.428, P > 0.05), but there was a significant relationship for females with equation 2 (males: r = 0.279, P > 0.05; females: r = 0.474, P <0.05). Our findings indicate that these equations have high inter-individual consistency but low intra-individual consistency with the reference and are of limited use for the longitudinal evaluation of visceral fat area.