Organizational justice in intercollegiate athletics: Perceptions of coaches

Research indicates sport industry employees encounter organizational justice, or fairness perceptions, during resource distributions on the basis of what was distributed (distributive justice), how the distribution decision was reached (procedural justice), and how the distribution decision was communicated to the employee (interaction justice). This study's purpose was to explore coaches’ perceptions of fairness regarding current resource distribution systems in intercollegiate athletics in terms of types of sport (high profile sports vs. low profile sports) and participant gender (male participant sports vs. female participant sports). A total of 260 coaches from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, II, and III institutions in the United States responded through online surveys assessing three dimensions of organizational justice: distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Subsequently, tests for discriminant validity prompted the consolidation of the procedural and interactional justice dimensions. MANOVA tests found: (a) no significant main effect nor interaction effect for distributive justice and (b) main effects of type of sport and participant gender, but no interaction effect for procedural justice. Practical and broader theoretical implications for these findings are discussed.     

Conceptualizing employee identification with sport organizations: Sport Employee Identification (SEI)

The concepts of organizational identification and team identification have been researched heavily over the last half-century. However, scholars have failed to specifically examine organizational identification among sport employees. We develop a theoretical framework of organizational identification of sport employees, coined Sport Employee Identification (SEI). We conceptualize SEI as an amalgamation of organizational identification and team identification in which sport employees are both external (fans) and internal (employee) members of the sport organization. The development of the SEI model is based on related theory and further ethnographic data are collected over a four-month period within an intercollegiate athletics fundraising department. Implications for scholars and practitioners and avenues for future research are discussed.     

Organizational justice and commitment in interscholastic sports

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of three organizational justice dimensions on the commitment of high school student athletes (N?=?480) to continue playing a referent sport. The athletes were asked to complete an instrument designed to assess their perceived levels of justice displayed by their coaches in three justice dimensions—procedural justice, distributive justice and interpersonal justice. The findings indicated that justice perceptions did significantly (p?<?0.05) influence their intent to continue playing a specific sport. Further analyses found fairness perceptions differed significantly (p?<?0.05) when considering the students’ grade level, gender and referent sport, while no differences existed based upon the race of the student athletes. These findings provide insight into organizational justice in sport.     

‘To honor and glorify God’: the role of religion in one intercollegiate athletics culture

Numerous events have provided evidence that the cultural values and assumptions of intercollegiate athletic departments are often incongruent with those of their host institutions. This discrepancy has even been evident in Christian institutions which seek to integrate faith into the learning experience. Using the organizational culture perspective, this study sought to determine how religion influenced the culture of one intercollegiate athletics department. The study took place at a highly selective evangelical Christian college with a nationally competitive athletic department. Data were collected through interviews with 19 campus leaders, observation of cultural events and document analysis. Analysis occurred qualitatively through a process of theorizing. The results indicate that evangelical Christianity played a significant role in the athletic department's culture by constraining its membership, influencing its pedagogy and guiding department decisions. As a result, its values and assumptions were consistent with those of the overall campus culture. The reasons underlying this cultural integration offer coaches and administrators of all institutional affiliations the possibility that the organizational culture perspective can be used to create athletic programs that are more consistent with institutional values.     

美国中学与大学体育的管理机制与司法治理

体育作为中学课外活动的教育内容之一，主要由美国各州政府自行管理，各州的中学也组成了高中体育管理联合会来制定和执行校际体育活动的有关规则。美国法院遵循司法谦抑原则，通常不会干预联合会的决定，除非决定所依据的规则或所依据的程序违反了成文法，或侵犯了联邦或州宪法规定的基本权利。大学校际体育由大学自发组成的各种联合会进行管理，其中最重要的是全国大学体育联合会（NCAA），NCAA以维持大学体育的业余性、保证体育作为高等教育的有机组成部分为宗旨，有权制定和强制实施各项规则及处罚。NCAA不是政府组织，无法对其管理大学体育的行为适用美国联邦宪法，但可以适用美国联邦反垄断法。     

全美高校竞技体育联合会的管理原则

根据全美高校竞技体育职合会１９９６年的改革方案及发展宗旨,全美高校竞技体育 合会确立了大不自我控制和全权负责、学生运动员身心健康、男女平等、学术标准、服从规则、公平竞赛、业余体育、招生条例、资格审查、经费资助等１６条基本的管理原则,为今天全美高校竞技体育联合会的蓬勃发展奠定了理论基础。     

英美大学校际竞技体育的发展及其对中国的启示

在回顾了英美大学校际竞技体育“业余性”核心理念的发展历程的基础上,介绍了英美两国的BUCS（英国高等院校体育协会）和NCAA（美国大学生体育联合会）两种管理模式。从“政府与社会共管、业余性理念下的商业化运作、学术与体育运动并存”3个方面,探讨了“业余性”核心理念在英美大学校际竞技体育中的具体表现,并进而借鉴英美的经验为我国的大学校际竞技体育发展提出了“转变价值观、合理化管理架构、推进商业化运作”3点建议。     

Institutions of higher commitment: A case study of de-escalation and American football's decisive role in intercollegiate athletics

This case study presents a common challenge among many sport organisations facing the decision to maintain, increase, or decrease commitment to failing projects or courses of action. Using escalation of commitment theory as a framework, this case highlights the organisational processes for reversing former commitment decisions, underscoring seldom pursued de-escalation behaviour. This case uses fictional East University to illustrate the circumstances confronting most National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic departments in the United States. Amidst inadequate revenue to cover increasing expenses, university decision makers are often responsible for determining the most suitable commitment to intercollegiate athletics, with a specific focus on costly football programs. Given extensive stakeholder involvement and pressure, commitment decisions are further complicated by the complex economic, social, and political challenges of balancing often competing groups and their interests. In response to a university-wide initiative emphasising successful programs and critically scrutinising underperforming programs, East's athletic director Steve Barnes is charged with determining the most appropriate course of action in de-escalating athletics (notably football) commitment. Consequently, the situation presented provides students with an opportunity to critically evaluate the multifaceted nature of de-escalating commitment to an existing course of action. This case is useful for both undergraduate and graduate courses in strategic management, organisational behaviour, athletic administration, and policy and governance.     

A role of team and organizational identification in the success of cause-related sport marketing

As sport marketers are increasingly engaging in cause-related sport marketing (CRSM) programs, there is a growing interest in understanding what CRSM characteristics and circumstances can lead to success. This study extends prior research by examining the direct and moderating impacts of team identification and cause organizational identification on consumer attitudes toward cause related sport marketing (CRSM) programs using intercollegiate sport contexts in the United States. A two groups (high vs. low-fit CRSM messages), between subject, and post-test only experiment (N = 309) denoted that respondents showed more positive attitudes toward high-fit CRSM messages and both team identification and cause organizational identification had different moderating effects of sport/cause fit on attitudes. Fit between a sport team and a cause had a greater impact on attitudes when consumer affinity toward the sport team was more positive. However, fit had little or no impact when consumer affinity toward the cause was positive, but it played a significant and positive role when consumers showed low affinity toward the cause.     

美国大学校际体育竞赛管理的启示

阐述并分析了美国大学校际体育竞赛管理的组织机构、运动员资格以及学籍管理、竞赛组织等现状,认为他们将校际体育竞赛纳入学校教育之中,实行学校管理,建立健全的组织以及标准化立法等方面成功的经验值得我们借鉴与参考。     

“They cannot seem to get past the gender issue”: Experiences of young female athletic trainers in NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics

Within Division I intercollegiate athletics, women hold 46.4% of graduate assistant and 47% of assistant athletic trainer positions, yet hold only 18.8% of head athletic trainer positions. The purpose of this study was to explore whether issues of power and gender stereotyping contribute to the lack of women in head athletic training positions in intercollegiate athletics. Data were gathered from 14 female athletic trainers at Division I universities through semi-structured interviews and follow-up questions based on those interviews and were analyzed using post-structural feminism as the theoretical framework. The findings revealed that male coaches used gender stereotypes to challenge the professional competence of our participants along with formal and informal work practices to reinforce power over the professional lives of our participants.     

An administrative mess: A case study from the officiating community

This case is written for instructors of classes focused on strategic management, organisational behaviour, human resource management, and/or an officiating course. The case highlights the numerous administrative processes a new employee in a sport organisation would face. Although the case is fictional it is based on the authors’ personal and professional experiences in athletics administration and officiating, and further draws upon the authors’ research in the area of officiating. Consequently, this case study was constructed based on first-hand observation, interviews and conversation with numerous officials and administrators, and through the examination of documents frequently used to manage officials. As a result, the case provides an opportunity for students to critically evaluate and address: (1) a sport organisation's policies and procedures; (2) issues related to human resource management within a sport setting; (3) the managerial response after an organisational failure.     

Organizational justice and conflict: Do perceptions of fairness influence disagreement?

Organizational justice may be a vital factor in the development of conflict between personnel within sport organizations. Specifically, perceptions of injustice may increase the potential for disagreement regarding codes of conduct and organizational procedures. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of multiple dimensions of organizational justice (i.e., distributive, procedural, interactional, and informational) on the perception of intragroup conflict. Paid staff from 262 regional sport commissions and convention and visitors bureaus (CVBs) across the United States responded to an online study to measure perceptions of justice and conflict. Results indicating procedural, interactional, and informational justice predicted the perception of intragroup conflict in this setting. The unique impact of each type of justice may be explained by instrumental and relational models, which has implications for sport management theory and practice.     

媒体反馈效应:美国高校校际体育在竞争与平衡中发展的催化剂

探讨了媒体反馈效应对美国高校校际体育发展产生的深远影响。指出：美国高校将校际比赛的电视转播权出售给媒体所产生的反馈效应使优秀的运动队或运动员脱颖而出，并形成多层次的校际体育竞争机制；同时，媒体反馈效应促使各高校之间的资源配置更加合理，使高校校际体育获得相对平衡的发展，从而保证了高校校际体育比赛的激烈程度与观赏性。探讨了美国高校竞技体育的发展给我国的启示。     

Management training and national sport organization managers: Examining the impact of training on individual and organizational performances

Within sport, a tremendous amount of effort is committed to the on-the-field performance of athletes and coaches, neglecting the off-the-field performance and development of sport managers. This study examines the impact of human resource training on the performance of five Canadian national sport organizations (NSO) and their managers (N = 22). Data were collected on three outcome variables (learning, individual performance, organizational performance) and three mediating variables (motivation to transfer, training design, organizational climate) at three time measures (pretraining, post-training¹, post-training²). Results indicate that training improves the learning and individual performance of sport managers, as well as the organizational performance of NSOs. Varying relationships were found at each of the three time measures, demonstrating that a progression to training-related performance change exists. Implications and future research directions are discussed and highlighted the need for on-going training opportunities for Canadian sport managers.     

NCAA商业化运作对我国高校体育赛事的启示

我国高校体育赛事的商业化运作水平并不高，并没有完全摆脱资金缺乏对举办比赛的牵绊。从“疯狂三月”这一NCAA典型事件为切入点，对其“疯狂”程度做了介绍，并结合2006—2007年NCAA财务报告，深入分析了其各项收入来源及运作方式，力图从中找到适合我国高校体育赛事商业化运作的可借鉴之处，从而促进我国高校体育赛事健康发展。     

兼顾休闲价值取向的大学体育教学内容选编问题思考

休闲价值取向下的大学体育教学内容选编,必须处理好制约教材选编的影响因素,同时还要正确认识竞技、休闲和民族传统体育项目在教材体系中的地位与主导价值。强身健体的实效性、支配身体的技巧性、他娱自乐的竞技性,可作为休闲价值取向下大学体育教材内容选编的逻辑主线。     

竞技体育的社会发展及其评价

以体育社会学为基础,阐述了发展竞技体育的重要意义,并确定了社会对竞技体育评价概念、发展指标、社会功能等评价内容以及改革竞技体育的管理体制,对研究我国竞技体育社会评价的内容与可持续发展具有重要意义。     

A “leaky pipeline”?: Factors affecting the career development of senior-level female administrators in NCAA Division I athletic departments

National governing bodies, international sport federations, and national Olympic committees continue to struggle to attain minimal levels of female representation. Sport organizations in the United States are no exception. Despite the fact that more women work in intercollegiate athletics than ever before, the number of female assistant and associate athletic directors is declining. As such, fewer women are in the “pipeline” to achieve the position of Athletic Director. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that may influence women's career development in intercollegiate athletic administration. Twenty assistant and associate athletic directors were interviewed about their career paths, experiences, and goals. Results suggest strong interpersonal relationships with supervisors and mentors and access to professional development activities aided in participants’ career advancement. Factors attributed to perceptions of gender and professional value incongruence affected women's career choices and opportunities for advancement. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.