Methodology in Sports History: Learning from Legal Scholarship?

The brief note aims to illustrate how historical context has contributed to my writing on modern sports law and principally through two pieces of work – the first relating to the historical, sui generis origins of the legality of combat or fighting sports, which continues to stretch the boundaries of core principles of criminal law, such as reasonable consent to bodily harm, to their utmost; and second, and more generally, the ‘historicalegal’ influences on the development of modern sport in mid-nineteenth-century Britain. Before that is done, it is best to give some account of research methodologies in legal scholarship and principally as they apply to legal history.     

Estimating propulsive forces in swimming from three‐dimensional kinematic data

Propulsive forces are important determinants of swimming performance. The aim of this study was to quantify the measurement error (uncertainty) in propulsive forces calculated from kinematic data. Ten operators digitized underwater video recordings of a breaststroke swimmer's right arm action. Four landmarks on the hand were digitized at 50 Hz and their three‐dimensional coordinates obtained using a DLT algorithm. Two angles (α and ψ) defining the orientation of the hand relative to the fluid flow were calculated following the procedures of Schleihauf et al. (1983). The hydrodynamic force acting on the hand (F _R) was calculated using the force coefficients of Schleihauf (1979). Errors in single measurements of hand speed, α and ψ were estimated for each video field analysed. Errors in α and ψ led to average errors in the lift and drag coefficients of 27 and 20% respectively, which, when combined with an average hand speed error of 6%, produced an average error in F _R of 26%. Each of these errors was reduced by a factor of √10 when the mean of 10 measurements was used to calculate F _R . Researchers should report both the estimated errors in their hydrodynamic data and the procedures used to reduce them.     

Costs resulting from nonprofessional soccer injuries in Switzerland:A detailed analysis

Background:Soccer injuries constitute an important public health problem and cause a high economic burden.Nevertheless,comprehensive data regarding injury costs in nonprofessional soccer are missing.The aim of this study was to determine which groups of nonprofessional soccer athletes,injury types,and injury situations caused high injury costs.Methods:A cross-sectional,retrospective telephone survey was carried out with a random sample of persons who had sustained a soccer injury between July 2013 and June 2014 and who had reported this accident to the Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund(Suva).One year after the corresponding accident,every injury was linked to its costs and to the answers obtained in the interview about injury setting,injury characteristics,and injury causes.Finally,the costs of 702 injuries were analyzed.Results:The average cost of an injury in nonprofessional soccer amounted to€4030(bias-corrected and accelerated 95%confidence interval(BCa 95%CI):3427-4719).Persons aged 30 years and older experienced 35%of soccer injuries but accounted for 49%of all costs.A total of58%of all costs were the result of injuries that occurred during amateur games.In particular,game injuries sustained by players in separate leagues for players aged 30+/40+years led to high average costs of€8190(BCa 95%CI:5036-11,645).Knee injuries accounted for 25%of all injuries and were responsible for 53%of all costs.Although contact and foul play did not lead to above-average costs,twisting or turning situations were highly cost relevant,leading to an average sum of€7710(BCa 95%CI:5376-10,466)per injury.Conclusion:Nonprofessional soccer players aged 30 years and older and particularly players in 30+/40+leagues had above-average injury costs.Furthermore,the prevention of knee injuries,noncontact and nonfoul play injuries,and injuries caused by twisting and turning should be of highest priority in decreasing health care costs.     

Inter-individual differences in the responses to aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease: Findings from the FIT-AD trial

Background:Despite the strong evidence of aerobic exercise as a disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer’s disease(AD)in animal models,its effects on cognition are inconsistent in human studies.A major contributor to these findings is inter-individual differences in the responses to aerobic exercise,which was well documented in the general population but not in those with AD.The purpose of this study was to examine inter-individual differences in aerobic fitness and cognitive responses to a 6-month aerobic exercise intervention in community-dwelling older adults with mild-to-moderate dementia due to AD.Methods:This study was a secondary analysis of the Effects of Aerobic Exercise for Treating Alzheimer’s Disease(FIT-AD)trial data.Aerobic fitness was measured by the shuttle walk test(SWT),the 6-min walk test(6MWT),and the maximal oxygen consumption(VO2max)test,and cognition by the AD Assessment Scale-Cognition(ADAS-Cog).Inter-individual differences were calculated as the differences in the standard deviation of 6-month change(SDR)in the SWT,6MWT,VO2max,and ADAS-Cog between the intervention and control groups.Results:Seventy-eight participants were included in this study(77.4±6.3 years old,mean±SD;15.7±2.8 years of education;41%were female).VO2max was available for 26 participants(77.7±7.1 years old;14.8±2.6 years of education;35%were female).The SDR was 37.0,121.1,1.7,and 2.3 for SWT,6MWT,VO2max,and ADAS-Cog,respectively.Conclusion:There are true inter-individual differences in aerobic fitness and cognitive responses to aerobic exercise in older adults with mild-tomoderate dementia due to AD.These inter-individual differences likely underline the inconsistent cognitive benefits in human studies.     

Are sports club members big spenders?: Findings from sport specific analyses in Germany

This paper analyses the sport expenditures of people who are members of non-profit sports clubs (N = 10,013) in Germany. Adult members, active in 21 sports, were asked about their sport expenditure relating to several defined categories. The results show that members spend an average of €1610 per year on their chosen sport. Sport specific analyses reveal big differences in expenditure between sports, ranging from badminton (€338) to equestrian (€7902). According to sport-specific regression analyses, personal income, level of performance, and weekly time of participation are the main predictors of sport-specific expenditures. Compared to other studies, these results show that the financial status of members of non-profit sports clubs is very strong.     

Gender difference in cycling speed and age of winning performers in ultra-cycling – the 508-mile “Furnace Creek” from 1983 to 2012

We analysed (i) the gender difference in cycling speed and (ii) the age of winning performers in the 508-mile “Furnace Creek 508”. Changes in cycling speeds and gender differences from 1983 to 2012 were analysed using linear, non-linear and hierarchical multi-level regression analyses for the annual three fastest women and men. Cycling speed increased non-linearly in men from 14.6 (s = 0.3) km · h^?1 (1983) to 27.1 (s = 0.7) km · h^?1 (2012) and non-linearly in women from 11.0 (s = 0.3) km · h^?1 (1984) to 24.2 (s = 0.2) km · h^?1 (2012). The gender difference in cycling speed decreased linearly from 26.2 (s = 0.5)% (1984) to 10.7 (s = 1.9)% (2012). The age of winning performers increased from 26 (s = 2) years (1984) to 43 (s = 11) years (2012) in women and from 33 (s = 6) years (1983) to 50 (s = 5) years (2012) in men. To summarise, these results suggest that (i) women will be able to narrow the gender gap in cycling speed in the near future in an ultra-endurance cycling race such as the “Furnace Creek 508” due to the linear decrease in gender difference and (ii) the maturity of these athletes has changed during the last three decades where winning performers become older and faster across years.     

Automated processes in tennis: Do left-handed players benefit from the tactical preferences of their opponents?

Abstract

Previous research on laterality in sport suggests an over-representation of left-handers in interactive sports such as tennis and cricket. These findings potentially reflect left-handers' advantage over their right-handed competitors in those sports. Although considered crucial for successful performance, the tactical component of their superiority has yet to be analysed. Two studies were conducted to test for a side bias in tennis players' tactical preferences. In the first study, 108 right- and left-handed players of varying skill watched rallies on a computer screen and had to indicate where they would place the ball in the opposing half. The results showed the tactical preference of players to place more balls on a left-handed opponent's mostly stronger forehand side compared with when faced with a right-hander. In the second study, 54 professional tennis matches involving right- and left-handers were analysed with respect to ball placement frequencies on the opponent's backhand side. Significantly fewer balls were hit to the backhand side of a left-handed opponent, thus replicating the findings of Study 1 in on-court situations. Both studies indicate players' preference to place shots to their right irrespective of their opponent's handedness. Findings support the assumption that left-handers might enjoy a strategic advantage in tennis.     

In search of invariant athletic behaviour in sport: An example from championship squash match‐play

Analysis of competitive sport performance from a priori observation is frequently used to prepare an athlete for a future contest. This practice necessarily assumes that the observed athletic behaviours are invariant, in that the data from an earlier contest apply to the next. We report different analyses of championship squash matches from 1987 and 1988 in search of such invariance and thus a general signature of athletic behaviour. The results show that once the preceding condition to an athletic response (shot) becomes more detailed, by either accounting for where on court the previous shot was played to, or by pairing the previous shot with its own antecedent, the corresponding response becomes more predictable (P > 0.25). This is especially the case for a squash champion when the forehand and backhand characteristics of his shot response are accounted for. The finding that the champion is more consistent if his forehand and backhand shot responses to a preceding shot are analysed separately, shows that the level of analytic detail is an important consideration if the derived information from sport analysis is to prepare an athlete reliably for future sport competition. Finally, we consider sport competition from an ecological perspective with regard to the natural organization and stability of non‐linear systems in an attempt to explain the empirical data.     

What was Pierre de Coubertin concerned about in 1889? A View from an Argentine Contemporary Source

For more than a century Baron Pierre de Coubertin was believed to be a self-inspired Olympic forebear. That idea has recently been challenged, most notably by historian David Young. According to Young, de Coubertin took the idea of international Olympic Games in modern times from W. P. Brookes. Young bases his case on new evidence found in the Brookes’s archives. In this article I present another piece of evidence helping to corroborate Brookes’s influence on de Coubertin’s work. Such evidence comes from the personal report of Alejo Peyret, a member of the Argentine delegation to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition in which de Coubertin hosted the International Congress for the Propagation of Physical Exercise. In his report, Peyret provided a detailed account of all of the activities of the congress and commented on the state of physical education in France. By analyzing Peyret’s report, this article concludes that in mid-1889 de Coubertin was not concerned with reviving the Olympic Games. His focus was on improving France’s poor physical training system. This article also discusses the impact that the Argentine participation in the congress had on its incipient physical education and sporting movements.     

Muscle strength cut-offs for the detection of metabolic syndrome in a nonrepresentative sample of collegiate students from Colombia

Background: Evidence shows an association between grip strength and health;however, grip strength cut-offs for the detection of metabolic syndrome(MetS) in Latin American populations are scarce. The purpose of this study was to determine cut-offs of normalized grip strength(NGS)for the detection of MetS in a large nonrepresentative sample of a collegiate student population from Colombia.Methods: A total of 1795 volunteers(61.4% female;age = 20.68 ± 3.10 years, mean ± SD), ranging between 18 and 30 years of age participated in the study. Strength was estimated using a handheld dynamometer and normalized to body mass(handgrip strength(kg)/body mass(kg)). Anthropometrics, serum lipids indices, blood pressure, and fasting plasma glucose were measured. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis. MetS was defined as including ≥3 of the 5 metabolic abnormalities according to the International Diabetes Federation definition. A metabolic risk score was computed from the following components: waist circumference, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, glucose, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure.Results: Receiver operating curve analysis showed significant discriminatory accuracy of NGS in identifying the thresholds and risk categories.Lower strength was associated with increased prevalence of MetS. In males, weak, intermediate, and strong NGS values at these points were<0.466, 0.466-0.615, >0.615, respectively. In females, these cut-off points were <0.332, 0.332-0.437, >0.437, respectively.Conclusion: Our sex-specific cut-offs of NGS could be incorporated into a clinical setting for identifying college students at cardiometabolic disease risk.     

Do generations differ in sports participation and physical activity over the life course? Evidence from multiple datasets

ABSTRACT

Generational differences in health-related factors will affect forecasts of future disease patterns and health care needs. We studied whether participation in sports activity and being physically active are different between 10-year generations over a part of their life course. We used three different datasets on Dutch adults: a cohort study running for 20 years, the Doetinchem Cohort Study (DCS), multiple yearly databases (2001–2015) from the Netherlands health interview study (HIS), and a retrospective cohort study on life time sports careers, the Sports Participation Monitor (SPM). Based on a different questionnaire in each study, frequencies of weekly sport participation and being physically active according to recommended levels were determined by generation and sex. All data sets showed that self-reported sport participation has been increasing with every 10-year generation already for many decades. Especially for those generations born in the 1930s up to the 1960s, sport participation is higher compared to their predecessors. For instance at age 50, 43% of those born in the 1940s engaged in sports activities compared to 55% of those born in the 1950s (DCS data). Physical activity according to recommended levels showed no systematic differences by generation.

In conclusion, favourable generation-specific trends in participation in sports activities are found: recent generations are doing better than the older generations. It is unclear whether this also reflects higher levels of physical activity or lower levels of inactivity. Future research may reveal whether these developments also hold for other countries, and whether these developments continue for the younger generations.     

Why women see differently from the way men see? A review of sex differences in cognition and sports

The differences of learning and memory between males and females have been well documented and confirmed by both human and animal studies. The sex differences in cognition started from early stage of neuronal development and last through entire lifespan. The major biological basis of the gender-dependent cognitive activity includes two major components: sex hormone and sex-related characteristics, such as sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) protein. However, the knowledge of how much biology of sex contributes to normal cognitive function and elite athletes in various sports are still pretty limited. In this review, we will be focusing on sex differences in spatial learning and memory – especially the role of male- and female-type cognitive behaviors in sports.     

Influence of physical fitness on cognitive and academic performance in adolescents: A systematic review from 2005–2015

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the association of different components of physical fitness on cognitive performance (CP) and academic performance (AP) in adolescents, taking into account potential confounders. Method: Studies were identified in four databases (Pubmed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, and ProQuest) from January 2005 through to January 2015. A total of 21 articles met the inclusion criteria. Results: 8 studies showed association between physical fitness and CP, and 11 studies with AP. Cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility, motor coordination, and perceptual-motor skill are the highest measures associated with CP and AP. However, the findings on strength and flexibility are unclear. Finally, 62% of the 21 studies used confounders. The most controlled confounder were socioeconomic status, fatness, pubertal status, sex, and age. Conclusion: Fitness is associated with higher CP and AP. More research is needed in order to understand the causes of the differential effect of physical fitness components on CP and AP.     

‘Being’ in the coaching world: new insights on youth performance coaching from an interpretative phenomenological approach

Since Heidegger's influential text; Being and time (1927/2005), the phenomenological question of what it means to ‘be’ has generated a vast body of work. This paper reports data from a phenomenological study that investigated what it means to ‘be’ a youth performance coach. An overview of the interpretive phenomenological methods used is followed by presentation of coaches and data. Data analysis resulted in the identification of three constituent ‘essences’ of youth performance coaching: (i) care; (ii) a commitment to educate athletes authentically for corporeal challenges to come; and (iii) working with others to achieve a specialised corporeal excellence. The three identified essences manifest themselves in a broad lifeworld that includes settings on and off the field of play (FOP). Given the very different insights into the practice of coaching that emerge from this study, we argue it would be useful for future studies of coaching practice and coach education to extend their focus to take into account coaches' wider lives both on and off the FOP. We also argue for further exploration of coaching by drawing on phenomenological concepts such as care and relationality.     

What happened to the legacy from London 2012? A sociological analysis of the processes involved in preparing for a grassroots sporting legacy from London 2012 outside of the host city

Preparations for London 2012 included promises for a sporting legacy across Britain. APS data suggest that, despite a slight spike in 2012, we have not experienced the rise in participation promised. The importance of preparations for legacy were well documented but little research has examined these processes. We examine planning for sporting legacy within a non-Olympic city in England, Birmingham. Thirty-Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with people delivering sport in Birmingham to provide a figurational analysis of relationships involved. The change in government during the economic recession saw budget cuts and a reduction in sport development personnel. Whilst various organisations struggled financially, others wanted to link to legacy. This increase in groups involved led to confusion and the unintended outcome of ‘initiativitis’. In trying to leverage legacy, a strategic approach to managing potential opportunities with clear communication of opportunities is vital. A belief in inherent inspiration cannot be relied upon.     

Stress and risk for depression in competitive athletes suffering from back pain – Do age and gender matter?†

Back pain (BP), a prominent problem for competitive athletes, is a primary reason for limitations in athletic performance and daily life restrictions. As studies on the relationship between psychological variables and BP in athletes are scarce, the aim of this study was to investigate stress and depression in competitive athletes with BP. In a cross-sectional design, data of 154 competitive athletes (51% female; M_age?=?18.81 years, SD_age?=?5.05 years) were collected, assessing Performance stress, Socio-emotional stress, Risk for depression and Psychological well-being and the two BP parameters BP Intensity and Disability. Two multiple linear regressions were conducted to predict (1) BP Intensity and (2) Disability from Performance stress, Socio-emotional stress, Risk for depression and Psychological well-being. Multiple linear regressions demonstrated that Performance stress (β?=?.21, p?=?.01) was the only significant predictor of BP Intensity (F_1,142?=?6.68, p?=?.01, R²?=?.05), whilst Risk for depression (β?=?.24, p?=?.01) was the only significant predictor of Disability (F_1,142?=?8.46, p?=?.01, R²?=?.06). Neither gender nor age explained a significant amount of variance in the models. Study results showed that, as in the general population, the variables stress and depression are related to BP in competitive athletes. In particular, BP intensity was found to be associated with stress and BP-related disability was associated with depression, whereas age and gender showed no association with the BP parameters. A longitudinal investigation is warranted to determine the direction of the observed relationships.     

The determinants of stadium attendance in elite women’s football: Evidence from the UEFA Women's Champions League

Women’s football struggles to build a solid platform in terms of fan interest. However, while an increase in gate receipts can help assist its long-term sustainability, there is limited evidence in the academic literature on the factors influencing spectator demand in women’s football. The authors investigate determinants of stadium attendance for UEFA Women's Champions League (UWCL) matches. Using regression models deployed on 554 UWCL games played between 2009/10 and 2017/18, the authors examine contextual and sport-related variables as the main predictors of stadium attendance. Findings show that there is no continuous growth of attendance over the period examined, and highlight that spectators’ interest is positively associated with five factors: stage of the competition, uncertainty of match outcome, competitive intensity, away club’s reputation and weather conditions. Football governing bodies should put in place initiatives to ensure match outcome uncertainty is maintained as this represents a key determinant to maximise stadium attendance. Based on the specific context of European women’s football, recommendations to foster its development are discussed. These include incentivising investment into the elite women’s game and designing sport policies to encourage participation at grassroots levels.