解读竞争中努力缺乏的失败:体育竞赛中的"习得无助"现象

基于“习得无助”理论的“动机缺乏模式”和“功能缺乏模式”发展一个体育竞赛的努力缺乏综合模式，通过实验设计验证6个理论假设。80名体育专业学生参加一个投篮对抗，决定胜负，然后，再参加一个投掷飞镖的任务。对被试的朝向认知活动、后续朝向状态、后续努力与第二任务成绩的关系进行分析。结果发现，失败的被试比成功被试更关注结果引起的原因，同时，对后续控制感更低；当归因倾向非控制因素时，后续努力变得下降。另外，归因的方式对后续努力和投标成绩都有影响。     

基于“Choking”实验范式的“自我批判”中介效应验证

“自我批判”指个体为了保护自尊而朝向规避负面可能性结果的心理倾向,反映了个体高标准的“自我关注”。运用飞镖任务的“Choking”实验范式,把“自我批判”作为内源性中介变量,观察其在压力下运动表现的作用解释机制。对50名大学生运动员进行“自我批判”的人格测试,并分别在无压力和压力条件下完成飞镖投掷任务的测试,所得数据通过SPSS 24.0和Process 3.0进行统计分析。研究发现,“自我批判”倾向的被试在压力条件下表现了“自我关注”的认知压力(β=0.50,P<0.001);同时,其“Choking”表现也随之增加(β=0.35,P<0.01)。因此,“自我批判”作为“Choking”的内源性诱因,具有部分的中介作用机制解释,其解释变异的效应占25%。     

Experimental validation of dynamic stability analysis applied to dart flight

The game of darts attracts a large international following and can be fiercely competitive. Despite its popularity, and the large equipment market, no previous peer-reviewed studies have examined the trajectory of a dart in flight. This study used high-speed video techniques to measure the trajectories of 225 dart throws from 19 amateur players. The dart’s pitch and angle of attack were found to oscillate during flight in a manner that is analogous to damped harmonic motion. It was also found that the dart’s oscillation frequency was strongly correlated to launch speed, whilst its characteristic wavelength and damping ratio were independent of launch speed. The measured wavelength of oscillation (2.16 m) was found to be similar to the regulation throwing distance (2.37 m). It is proposed that the dart is ‘tuned’ to the throwing distance such that it undergoes one full oscillation before striking the board. The dart flight was modelled using a classical dynamic stability analysis and good agreement was found between the experimental observations and the theoretical predictions. The success of the model confirms that the approach can be used to explore the dynamics of different dart designs through parametric sensitivity analyses.     

Effects of anxiety on running with and without an aiming task

State anxiety is known to affect far aiming tasks, but less is known about the effects of state anxiety on running and aiming while running. Therefore, in the current study participants ran on a treadmill at their preferred speed in a low- and high-anxiety condition. In both conditions, running was combined with dart throwing in the last minutes. Results showed that attention shifted away from task execution with elevated levels of anxiety. Furthermore, gait patterns were more conservative and oxygen uptake was higher with anxiety. In addition, performance and efficiency on the dart throwing task also decreased with anxiety. These findings are in line with attentional control theory and provide an indication that state anxiety not only affects aiming tasks but also tasks that rely heavily on the aerobic system. Moreover, findings indicate that when combined, running, aiming, and anxiety all compete for attention leading to suboptimal attentional control and possibly a decrease in performance.     

Self-Controlled Amount of Practice Benefits Learning of a Motor Skill

Abstract

Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g., feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning. Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.     

Transfer of Accuracy Training When Difficulty is Controlled by Varying Target Size

Abstract

This study was undertaken to determine the effect on accuracy of practice under conditions in which the practice target was larger or smaller than the test target. Two throwing skills were studied. A dart throwing experiment (190 subjects) and a softball throwing experiment (128 subjects) were conducted. In each experiment treatment groups practiced on either a target identical to the test target, a target with a diameter one-half that of the test target, a target with a diameter one and one-half times that of the test target, or a target which was merely a point in the center of the “field” of the test target. Statistical treatment revealed no conclusive differential treatment effects in either experiment.     

Self-controlled amount of practice benefits learning of a motor skill

Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g, feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.     

Cognitive Style and Learner Strategy Interaction in the Performance of Primary and Related Maze Tasks

Abstract

The effect of designated learning strategies and reflective versus impulsive cognitive styles on performance in a maze learning task was investigated. Twenty-four female subjects were randomly assigned to a strategy or control group. The strategies group was provided with three potentially effective strategies (imagery, rhythm, and feedback) as identified by an information processing task analysis procedure. The Matching Familiar Figures test further classified subjects within the two groups according to their preferred styles of responding. Eleven primary task trials were administered with direct view of maze and four related task trials were completed with an indirect view of it. Traversal speed and time in the incorrect pathways were analyzed with a 2 × 2 × 7 (Strategies × Cognitive Styles × Trial Blocks) repeated measures ANOVA. A significant three-way interaction was found for both dependent measures. As hypothesized, during the primary task the control reflective subjects traversed the maze more slowly than the control impulsive subjects. However, the strategies reflective subjects completed the maze with the same speed as strategies impulsives. The incorrect pathways × time interaction revealed that the control reflective subjects spent less time in the incorrect pathways during the related task than the control impulsives. No significant differences were found for strategies reflectives or impulsives. These findings indicate that, for this maze task that emphasized speed, the performance of reflective and impulsive subjects was facilitated by appropriate learning strategies.     

In Search of the Loci for Sex Differences in Throwing

Contemporary accounts of sex differences in perceptual-motor performance differ in their emphasis on nature and nurture. Study 1 examined the effect of extensive training on one of the largest sex differences, namely accuracy in dart throwing, and found that physical differences in height and reach could not explain sex differences in regional/national level dart players. Study 2 rejected accounts of sex differences based on participation rates by showing that male players recruited from a relatively small pool of club players were superior to the best female players selected from a much larger pool at the international level. Alternative accounts of the source of sex differences in darts, based on male and female players' differential development and practice histories, are discussed.     

Maximizing Performance Feedback Effectiveness through Videotape Replay and a Self-Controlled Learning Environment

This study was designed to examine whether participants who could control the schedule of performance feedback (KP) would learn differentially from those who received a rigid feedback schedule while learning a complex task. Participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to self-controlled KP (SELF), summary KP (SUMMARY), yoked control (YOKE), or knowledge of results only (KR) conditions. Data collection consisted of an acquisition phase and a 4-day retention phase during which right-handed participants performed a left-handed ball throw. Overall, throwing form improved across trial blocks during acquisition, with the SUMMARY, SELF, and YOKE groups showing more improvement than the KR group. During retention, the SELF group retained a higher level of throwing form and accuracy in comparison to the other groups. Results suggest that when given the opportunity to control the feedback environment, learners require relatively less feedback to acquire skills and retain those skills at a level equivalent to or surpassing those who are given more feedback but receive it passively.     

In search of the loci for sex differences in throwing: the effects of physical size and differential recruitment rates on high levels of dart performance

Contemporary accounts of sex differences in perceptual-motor performance differ in their emphasis on nature and nurture. Study 1 examined the effect of extensive training on one of the largest sex differences, namely accuracy in dart throwing, and found that physical differences in height and reach could not explain sex differences in regional/national level dart players. Study 2 rejected accounts of sex differences based on participation rates by showing that male players recruited from a relatively small pool of club players were superior to the best female players selected from a much larger pool at the international level. Alternative accounts of the source of sex differences in darts, based on male and female players' differential development and practice histories, are discussed.     

Immediate and delayed bilateral transfer of throwing accuracy in male and female children

In the present study, an attempt was made to examine the nature and persistence of bilateral transfer of a throwing skill for a large sample of male and female children. One hundred sixty children ages 6, 8, 10, and 12 years were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group with an equal number of boys and girls in each group. The experiment lasted 2 days and consisted of a pretest, a practice phase, an immediate transfer test, and a delayed transfer test. On the pretest, each participant performed 10 trials of a novel one-hand throwing task. Following the pretest, participants in the experimental group practiced the skill with the hand opposite the one used during the pretest until they had successfully reached a designated criterion for their age. Participants in the control group performed a balancing activity. Following the practice phase, all participants performed immediate (10 min later) and delayed (24 hr later) transfer tests under the same conditions as the pretest. The results revealed no group differences on the pretest but significantly higher throwing accuracy for the experimental group than the control group on both transfer tests. In addition, boys' throwing accuracy was significantly superior to the girls. It was concluded that bilateral transfer of throwing accuracy can be both a temporary and relatively persistent phenomenon for children and the superior throwing accuracy for boys is consistent with similar gender differences in throwing distance and throwing velocity (Thomas & French, 1985).     

Children's motivation in elementary physical education: an expectancy-value model of achievement choice

This study examined children's motivation in elementary physical education within an expectancy-value model developed by Eccles and her colleagues. Four hundred fourteen students in second and fourth grades completed questionnaires assessing their expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, and intention for future participation in physical education. Results indicated that expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values were clearly distinguishable from one another across physical education and throwing. The two constructs were related to each other positively. Children's intention for future participation in physical education was positively associated with their subjective task values and/or expectancy-related beliefs. Younger children had higher motivation for learning in physical education than older children. Gender differences emerged and the findings provided empirical evidence supporting the validity of the expectancy-value model in elementary physical education.     

The Effects of Three Styles of Teaching on the Psychomotor Performance And Social Skill Development of Fifth Grade Children

Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.     

The Influence of Feedback on Competence,Motivation, Vitality,and Performance in a Throwing Task

Purpose: The purpose of this work is focused on the study of the effect that feedback has on competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, vitality, and performance in a throwing task. Method: Thirty-five college students (26 men and 9 women), without previous experience in the task, participated in this study. The students were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions (positive, negative, and lack of feedback). Results: The results of this study point out that only those who received positive feedback before the handball throwing task, in contrast to those who received negative feedback or did not receive any feedback, showed increased levels of competence valuation (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.30), perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.77), and autonomous motivation (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.48). This group also presented higher levels of perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.84) and subjective vitality (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.80) than the group who received negative feedback after the throwing task. Those who received positive feedback also showed a higher throwing speed at the end of task than those who received negative feedback (p < 0.001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.71) or than those who did not receive any feedback (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.56). Conclusions: Competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, subjective vitality, and throwing speed were favorably influenced by positive feedback. These results have important implications for the training style applied by coaches.     

Task complexity and sources of task-related information during the observational learning process

Although research has examined the influence of various sources of task information for skill acquisition during observational learning, the results have been ambiguous. The purpose of this study was to examine sources of information in relation to the type of task. One hundred and twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of two sets of six treatment strategies: (1) all model demonstrations; (2) model demonstrations with physical practice with knowledge of performance; (3) model demonstrations with physical practice without knowledge of performance; (4) physical practice without knowledge of performance; (5) physical practice with knowledge of performance; or (6) verbal instructions only. One set learned a simple version of the task while the other set learned a more complex version. Cognitive representation and performance accuracy (spatial and temporal) were assessed. Results indicate that task type does influence the source of information to facilitate skill acquisition. The simple task benefited from model demonstrations, physical practice with knowledge of performance, or a combination of model demonstrations and practice both with and without knowledge of performance, while the complex version benefited more from a combination of model demonstrations and knowledge of performance practice. The results of this study provide an insight into the ambiguity that exists within the observational learning and motor learning literature regarding the effectiveness of information sources for motor skill acquisition.     

Task complexity and sources of task-related information during the observational learning process

Abstract

Although research has examined the influence of various sources of task information for skill acquisition during observational learning, the results have been ambiguous. The purpose of this study was to examine sources of information in relation to the type of task. One hundred and twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of two sets of six treatment strategies: (1) all model demonstrations; (2) model demonstrations with physical practice with knowledge of performance; (3) model demonstrations with physical practice without knowledge of performance; (4) physical practice without knowledge of performance; (5) physical practice with knowledge of performance; or (6) verbal instructions only. One set learned a simple version of the task while the other set learned a more complex version. Cognitive representation and performance accuracy (spatial and temporal) were assessed. Results indicate that task type does influence the source of information to facilitate skill acquisition. The simple task benefited from model demonstrations, physical practice with knowledge of performance, or a combination of model demonstrations and practice both with and without knowledge of performance, while the complex version benefited more from a combination of model demonstrations and knowledge of performance practice. The results of this study provide an insight into the ambiguity that exists within the observational learning and motor learning literature regarding the effectiveness of information sources for motor skill acquisition.     

Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches

The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9–12 years (M?=?9.74, SD?=?0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n?=?13), Errorless Low-Ability (n?=?11), Errorful High-Ability (n?=?10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n?=?11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.     

“Best” versus “Average” Individual Scores

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to determine if the presence of spectators when learning a complex motor task affected the performance of high- and low-anxious subjects. Forty-eight high- and 48 low-anxious subjects learned a coincident timing task alone or in the presence of an audience. Once the task was learned to a criterion, subjects performed 10 trials alone or in the presence of an audience. Palmar sweat gland activity was measured by counting the number of active sweat glands from a plastic mold. Absolute error found the mode of learning had no effect on performance. Absolute error intravariance, however, indicated that subjects who learned the task in the presence of an audience performed less consistently alone than subjects who performed in the presence of an audience. The anxiety level of the subject did not interact with the performance. Palmar sweat gland results showed increased arousal when in the presence of an audience.     

Relationship between accuracy and complexity when learning underarm precision throwing

Learning precision ball throwing was mostly studied to explore the early rapid improvement of accuracy, with poor attention on possible adaptive processes occurring later when the rate of improvement is reduced. Here, we tried to demonstrate that the strategy to select angle, speed and height at ball release can be managed during the learning periods following the performance stabilization. To this aim, we used a multivariate linear model with angle, speed and height as predictors of changes in accuracy. Participants performed underarm throws of a tennis ball to hit a target on the floor, 3.42 m away. Two training sessions (S1, S2) and one retention test were executed. Performance accuracy increased over the S1 and stabilized during the S2, with a rate of changes along the throwing axis slower than along the orthogonal axis. However, both the axes contributed to the performance changes over the learning and consolidation time. A stable relationship between the accuracy and the release parameters was observed only during S2, with a good fraction of the performance variance explained by the combination of speed and height. All the variations were maintained during the retention test. Overall, accuracy improvements and reduction in throwing complexity at the ball release followed separate timing over the course of learning and consolidation.