Basic psychological skills usage and competitive anxiety responses: perceived underlying mechanisms

This study examined the relationship between basic psychological skills usage (i.e., goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation) and the intensity and directional dimensions of competitive anxiety. Semistructured interviews were used on a sample of 15 elite athletes (M age = 24.3 years, SD = 4.2) from a variety of team and individual sports. Findings revealed that the participants maintained the intensity of their anxiety response prior to competition and could deploy goal-setting, imagery, or self-talk to enable facilitative interpretations of anxiety-related symptoms to performance. Higher levels of self-confidence and an optimistic outlook toward forthcoming competition were also expressed. The underlying mechanisms perceived to be responsible for these effects included effort and motivation, attentional focus, and perceived control over the anxiety response.     

Physical Fitness and Cardiac Risk Factors of Professional Firefighters across the Career Span

This study examined the relationship between basic psychological skills usage (i.e., goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation) and the intensity and directional dimensions of competitive anxiety. Semistructured interviews were used on a sample of 15 elite athletes (M age = 24.3 years, SD = 4.2) from a variety of team and individual sports. Findings revealed that the participants maintained the intensity of their anxiety response prior to competition and could deploy goal-setting, imagery, or self-talk to enable facilitative interpretations of anxiety-related symptoms to performance. Higher levels of self-confidence and an optimistic outlook toward forthcoming competition were also expressed. The underlying mechanisms perceived to be responsible for these effects included effort and motivation, attentional focus, and perceived control over the anxiety response.     

高水平运动员运动损伤经历的现象学研究

采用开放式访谈法对损伤运动员康复过程中的三个阶段进行了访谈研究.运动员将在损伤后的第一周,损伤后的15～20天及损伤后的30天接受访谈.这三次开放性的访谈是让运动员在没有任何前提约束的情况下自由地谈论他们的经历.被试是美国东南部大学的NCAA一级运动员（5名）.对访谈结果的分析揭示了四个主题：视点情绪反应,损伤应对及人际关系和几个次级主题.结论：第一,运动损伤在很大程度上影响了运动员的生活;第二,运动损伤对于本研究中的每名运动员都是一次独特的经历;最后,通过多重现象访谈法给运动员提供了公开谈论他们损伤康复经验的机会.     

从严重受伤到重返冬奥:一位高风险项目运动员的心理康复历程

许多冬季项目都具有比较高的损伤风险,如单板滑雪、高山滑雪和自由式滑雪等。如何帮助这些高风险项目的运动员应对运动损伤的挫折和康复治疗的挑战,是备战北京冬奥会面临的重要课题。研究介绍了心理保障团队如何帮助一位中国自由式滑雪空中技巧受伤运动员LGZ应对康复困难并重返国际比赛的心理康复历程。基于中国运动员心理建设系统,为LGZ的心理康复训练制订了三重目标:1)减少运动损伤的心理应激,积极参与康复治疗,尽早回归正常的训练和比赛;2)提高自我控制能力,形成良好的行为习惯,以平稳的心态参加训练和比赛;3)提升文化素养和精神境界,不断完善自我,促进终生发展。从2017年2月—2018年2月,在历时1年的心理训练中,共对其进行了5种心理干预:提供心理支持、实施表象训练、开展心理讲座、制订比赛预案和提供心理咨询;还通过心理测试来监控运动员的心理状态,并采用运动员个人评价、主管教练评价和竞技比赛表现来评估心理训练的效果。在为期1年的心理训练结束时,这名运动员逐渐克服了运动损伤所带来的焦虑,建立了伤后康复的自信,提高了自我控制的能力,并在平昌冬奥会上取得了她个人的最佳成绩,获得了冬奥会奖牌。这一案例提示我们“术道兼修”的心理训练具有一定成效,也带给我们许多反思。     

Imagery use by injured athletes: a qualitative analysis

The purpose of this study was to expand our knowledge and increase our understanding of imagery use by athletes in sport-injury rehabilitation using a qualitative approach. The participants were 10 injured athletes who were receiving physiotherapy at the time they were interviewed. During the interviews, the athletes provided extensive information about their use of imagery during injury rehabilitation and it was clear that they believed imagery served cognitive, motivational and healing purposes in effectively rehabilitating an injury. Cognitive imagery was used to learn and properly perform the rehabilitation exercises. They employed motivational imagery for goal setting (e.g. imagined being fully recovered) and to enhance mental toughness, help maintain concentration and foster a positive attitude. Imagery was used to manage pain. The methods they employed for controlling pain included using imagery to practise dealing with expected pain, using imagery as a distraction, imagining the pain dispersing, and using imagery to block the pain. With respect to what they imaged (i.e. the content of their imagery), they employed both visual and kinaesthetic imagery and their images tended to be positive and accurate. It was concluded that the implementation of imagery alongside physical rehabilitation should enhance the rehabilitation experience and, therefore, facilitate the recovery rates of injured athletes. Moreover, it was recommended that those responsible for the treatment of injured athletes (e.g. medical doctors, physiotherapists) should understand the benefits of imagery in athletic injury rehabilitation, since it is these practitioners who are in the best position to encourage injured athletes to use imagery.     

高水平运动员运动损伤的心理反应

对竞技项目运动员来说，运动损伤将产生巨大生理及心理的挑战。研究者们已经证实了运动损伤对高水平运动员所产生的一系列心理方面的影响，并且对于运动员的情感冲击提出了不同的理论模式。目前的研究中通过回顾相关运动损伤心理反应的一系列文献，力求挖掘并总结更系统的运动损伤在心理方面所受到的干扰及影响。通过这一总结又将引出更多的可探讨的问题以供将来在损伤后心理过程和整个恢复方面的研究。更重要的是能将这些所能考虑到的因素有效运用到现实的策略中，以帮助运动员更好的恢复和参与今后的比赛、训练。     

Stressors experienced by injured athletes

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine the stressors experienced by injured athletes during three phases of their recovery from sport injury, and (b) to explore the differences in the stressors experienced by team as compared to individual-sport athletes. Participants comprised previously injured high-level rugby union players (n = 5) and golfers (n = 5). Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the stressors participants experienced during three phases of injury (onset, rehabilitation and return to competitive sport). Within- and cross-case analyses showed that athletes experienced sport, medical/physical, social and financial stressors. There were a number of differences in the stressors experienced across the three phases and between team and individual-sport athletes. Findings have important implications for the design and implementation of interventions aimed at managing the potentially stressful sport injury experience and facilitating injured athletes' return to competitive sport.     

Coaches' encouragement of athletes' imagery use

To investigate whether coaches encourage their athletes to use imagery, two studies were undertaken. In the first, 317 athletes completed the Coaches' Encouragement of Athletes' Imagery Use Questionnaire. In the second, 215 coaches completed a slightly modified version of this questionnaire. It was found that coaches and athletes generally agreed on the relative frequency with which coaches encourage athletes to use imagery across the 4 Ws (i.e., where, when, why, and what). Coaches promoted imagery use more in conjunction with competition than training and injury rehabilitation, and higher-level coaches encouraged imagery use far more than their recreational counterparts. In addition, the level of athlete being coached had a major impact on how much or little coaches encouraged their athletes to use imagery. Coaches encouraged higher level athletes (i.e., international, national, varsity) to use imagery more than club and recreational athletes.     

运动损伤的应激反应与康复的PST干预策略

尽管受伤的心理应激研究仍然处于初始阶段。通过对受伤后的情绪反应,自尊以及运动员康复中情绪烦扰的效应的相关文献回顾,反映该领域研究的进展,同时也讨论在快速康复运动员中使用的PST干预策略。     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) among adolescent athletes

The aim of the present study was to examine the factorial validity of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., 1999) among adolescent athletes using confirmatory factor analysis. The TOPS was designed to assess eight psychological strategies used in competition (i.e. activation, automaticity, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery, negative thinking, relaxation and self-talk,) and eight used in practice (the same strategies except negative thinking is replaced by attentional control). National-level athletes (n = 584) completed the 64-item TOPS during training camps. Fit indices provided partial support for the overall measurement model for the competition items (robust comparative fit index = 0.92, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.88, root mean square error of approximation = 0.05) but minimal support for the training items (robust comparative fit index = 0.86, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.81, root mean square error of approximation = 0.06). For the competition items, the automaticity, goal-setting, relaxation and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, emotional control, imagery and negative thinking scales did not. For the practice items, the attentional control, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, automaticity and relaxation scales did not. Overall, it appears that the factorial validity of the TOPS for use with adolescents is questionable at present and further development is required.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) among adolescent athletes

The aim of the present study was to examine the factorial validity of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., ) among adolescent athletes using confirmatory factor analysis. The TOPS was designed to assess eight psychological strategies used in competition (i.e. activation, automaticity, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery, negative thinking, relaxation and self-talk,) and eight used in practice (the same strategies except negative thinking is replaced by attentional control). National-level athletes (n?=?584) completed the 64-item TOPS during training camps. Fit indices provided partial support for the overall measurement model for the competition items (robust comparative fit index?=?0.92, Tucker-Lewis index?=?0.88, root mean square error of approximation?=?0.05) but minimal support for the training items (robust comparative fit index?=?0.86, Tucker-Lewis index?=?0.81, root mean square error of approximation?=?0.06). For the competition items, the automaticity, goal-setting, relaxation and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, emotional control, imagery and negative thinking scales did not. For the practice items, the attentional control, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery and self-talk scales showed good fit, whereas the activation, automaticity and relaxation scales did not. Overall, it appears that the factorial validity of the TOPS for use with adolescents is questionable at present and further development is required.     

Young,talented and injured: Injury perceptions,experiences and consequences in adolescent elite athletes

Even though injury is common in elite sports, there is still a lack of knowledge of young athletes’ injury perception both during and after injury. The aim of this mixed-method study was, therefore, to explore, in-depth, data on injury consequences and adolescent elite athletes’ perceptions and experience of injury. Three hundred and forty adolescent elite athletes (age range 15–19), from 16 different sports, were bi-weekly monitored over 52 weeks using a valid questionnaire. Twenty athletes from the same cohort were interviewed in focus groups about injury experience and perceptions. The results show that the average bi-weekly prevalence of injury was 38.7% (95% CI 37.3–40.1), with 30.0% (n?=?102) of the athletes injured for more than half of all reporting times. An overarching theme from the focus groups highlighted the risk among young athletes of a loss of identity while injured. The findings support several suggestions that may improve the rehabilitation process and enhance rehabilitation outcomes: (a) provide clear pathways to the medical team, (b) recognize the identity loss, (c) involve the injured athletes with the rest of the teammates and (d) educate athletes about how to interpret pain signals. Future research should explore and evaluate the effectiveness and generalization of such interventions.     

Physical activity for health

Abstract

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine the stressors experienced by injured athletes during three phases of their recovery from sport injury, and (b) to explore the differences in the stressors experienced by team as compared to individual-sport athletes. Participants comprised previously injured high-level rugby union players (n = 5) and golfers (n = 5). Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the stressors participants experienced during three phases of injury (onset, rehabilitation and return to competitive sport). Within- and cross-case analyses showed that athletes experienced sport, medical/physical, social and financial stressors. There were a number of differences in the stressors experienced across the three phases and between team and individual-sport athletes. Findings have important implications for the design and implementation of interventions aimed at managing the potentially stressful sport injury experience and facilitating injured athletes' return to competitive sport.     

The role of psychological factors in sport injury rehabilitation outcomes

Although physical factors have ascended to a position of primacy in explaining and guiding treatment toward attaining sport injury rehabilitation outcomes, psychological factors may also play an important role in the rehabilitation process. This review examines correlational studies (N=26) in which significant relationships between psychological factors have been found and experimental studies (N=14) in which the effects of psychological factors on sport injury rehabilitation outcomes have been assessed. A variety of personal, cognitive, affective, and behavioral factors associated with sport injury rehabilitation outcomes have been identified and several interventions have been found effective in enhancing sport injury rehabilitation outcomes. Theoretical, empirical, and practical considerations for developing a research agenda to explicate the role of psychological factors in sport injury rehabilitation outcomes are discussed.     

The moral worth of sport reconsidered: contributions of recreational sport and competitive sport to life aspirations and psychological well-being

Based on self-determination theory, the present study aimed to test the hypothesis that importance ratings of life aspirations would mediate the effects of participation in recreational and competitive sport on psychological well-being. In addition, the effects of sport participation on psychological well-being were hypothesized to indicate that, compared with competitive athletes, recreational athletes would report higher psychological well-being. The participants were 118 university students (83 males, 35 females) with a mean age of 20.8 years (s = 7.6). In accordance with the initial hypotheses, a path analysis supported the mediating effect of importance ratings of life aspirations, but not of attainment ratings of life aspirations, on the relationship between participation in recreational and competitive sport and psychological well-being. The indirect effects observed for importance ratings supported the conclusion that recreational athletes showed a preference for intrinsic life aspirations compared with competitive athletes and reported higher psychological well-being. Overall, the findings of the present study suggest that the moral worth of sport does not reside so much in the frequency with which individuals engage in sport but in the goals and values people express through sport participation.     

The moral worth of sport reconsidered: Contributions of recreational sport and competitive sport to life aspirations and psychological well-being

Abstract

Based on self-determination theory, the present study aimed to test the hypothesis that importance ratings of life aspirations would mediate the effects of participation in recreational and competitive sport on psychological well-being. In addition, the effects of sport participation on psychological well-being were hypothesized to indicate that, compared with competitive athletes, recreational athletes would report higher psychological well-being. The participants were 118 university students (83 males, 35 females) with a mean age of 20.8 years (s = 7.6). In accordance with the initial hypotheses, a path analysis supported the mediating effect of importance ratings of life aspirations, but not of attainment ratings of life aspirations, on the relationship between participation in recreational and competitive sport and psychological well-being. The indirect effects observed for importance ratings supported the conclusion that recreational athletes showed a preference for intrinsic life aspirations compared with competitive athletes and reported higher psychological well-being. Overall, the findings of the present study suggest that the moral worth of sport does not reside so much in the frequency with which individuals engage in sport but in the goals and values people express through sport participation.     

Injury rehabilitation: a qualitative follow-up study

The current qualitative follow-up study was conducted to enhance the interpretability and meaningfulness of the findings emerging from a 5-week goal-setting intervention study with injured athletes. Semistructured interviews were conducted with a sample of 9 injured athletes, 3 from each of the three intervention study groups (goal-setting, social support control, and control), and cross-case summaries were inductively derived. The study highlighted the importance of individual difference variables, and the interaction of person and situational variables, including support from coaches and club, inability to train, weight gain, slowness of progress, physiotherapist support, and the importance of long-term outcome goals. Possible mechanisms for the observed effects of the goal-setting intervention included the effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy, attributions, perceptions of control, and attention.     

受伤运动员在治疗和恢复期心理反应的调查

研究在对运动员、教练员访谈的基础上，设计运动员受伤后心理反应问卷。在北京队和北京体育大学运动系、竞技体校10个项目、76人实施问卷调查。结果显示，运动员受伤后经常会生产以下心理反应对运动能力能否恢复到受伤前水平表示怀疑；情绪波动大、着急、易怒、沮丧；更希望能得到教练、亲人、朋友的理解和帮助。本文教练员和康复工作者将运动员心理问题的解决纳入康复计划，以求运动员尽早恢复训练。     

Measurement of motivational imagery abilities in sport

Athletes report using imagery most often to successfully cope with and master challenging situations. This function of imagery is termed "motivational general-mastery" and includes imagining being focused, confident and in control in difficult circumstances. Also, athletes often use imagery to regulate their arousal levels (e.g. relaxing, psyching up) and this function of imagery is termed "motivational-general arousal". While most athletes report employing these two motivational functions of imagery, their ability to do so has not been examined. The aim of the present study was to develop a measure of motivational general sport imagery ability, the Motivational Imagery Ability Measure for Sport (MIAMS). This was accomplished through three phases. Across these phases, evidence was generated showing that the psychometric properties of the instrument are adequate. In addition, the relationship of scores on the MIAMS to demographic variables, including sex, sport type and competitive standard, were examined. It was found that athletes participating at a competitive level scored higher on the MIAMS than athletes participating at a recreational level.