Moving into and out of high-performance sport: the cultural learning of an artistic gymnast

Background: High-performance sport has been described as a formative environment through which athletes learn sporting skills but also develop athletic selves. Within this process, career movements related to selection for and de-selection from representative teams constitute critical moments. Further, retirement from sport can be problematic as the athletic self becomes ‘obsolete’. This dilemma is acute in sports that demand an early entry, extreme time investments and a high risk of retirement before adulthood. Women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) is such a sport.

Purpose and scope: This article considers an artistic gymnast's (Marie) experiences of movement into and out of this sport. Marie's construction and reconstruction of her athletic self when she entered gymnastics at the age of six, relocated to a different city in order to train with the national team at the age of 15, and retired from the sport one year later receives particular attention.

Method and theoretical perspective: An in-depth biographical interview was conducted with Marie. Further, the first author's personal knowledge of this gymnast's career experiences was used for contextualisation. The analysis of data involved the identification of learning outcomes during her time in high-performance WAG and post-retirement. Storied accounts surrounding the key learning experiences were compiled. In order to understand Marie's learning, cultural perspective of learning developed by education scholars and the respective metaphors of ‘learning as becoming’ and ‘horizons for action’ and ‘horizons of learning’ are employed.

Findings: Marie's choice of relocating to train with the national team involved her assuming a temporary orientation towards the requirements of the high-performance WAG context she entered. To achieve this, Marie suppressed the dispositions she had brought to this setting and adjusted her training philosophy, relationship with her coach, diet and socialising. Further, despite Marie intending to only momentarily adjust to the practices of the high-performance context, her learning was deep. Upon retiring from gymnastics, she could not leave the high-performance gymnastics self behind. The subsequent process to adjust to life without gymnastics was difficult and testing, and could only be realised with professional treatment.

Conclusion: Learning in sport is not limited to athletic skills. Athletes’ selves are formed in interaction with sporting contexts and actors. This embodiment can become durable and cause significant conflict when moving out of sport. To handle life without sport, adjustment may be challenging and lengthy.

Recommendations: Sporting cultures should allow for more interactive learning and athlete diversity. Coaching practices that allow athletes to voice difficulties should be provided. Athletes should be encouraged to reflect upon their sporting experiences and upon leaving high-performance sport, should be (professionally) supported.     

Bourdieu knew more than how to play tennis! An empirically based discussion of habituation and reflexivity

This paper explores the role of reflexivity in habituation by contrasting the learning of aerobics and basketball with the acquisition of gendered bodily skills. The discussion is inspired by the paper So, how did Bourdieu learn to play tennis? Habitus, consciousness and habituation, by Noble and Watkins (2003), which represents a fruitful contribution to the debate on the roles of reflexivity and consciousness in learning. Still, this model of habituation remains one-dimensional, since it only addresses habituation involving reflexivity. Based on fieldwork at both a basketball club and an aerobic group for Muslim women, along with interviews with participants in the two arenas, we suggest that even though habituation often involves reflexivity, there are also forms of habituation that do not involve high degrees of consciousness. The paper adds to the on-going theoretical debate about the hybridisation of habitus and reflexivity by offering concrete and empirically based examples of different degrees of reflexivity involved in processes of habituation. This adds to a theoretical underpinning of habitus as a lived, changing category.     

High-performance sport,learning and culture: new horizons for sport pedagogues?

Background: Research in sport coaching and sport pedagogy including studies published in this special issue bring to the fore the relationship between learning and culture in contexts of high-performance sport. This paper acknowledged that how learning, culture and their relationship are conceptualised is a crucial issue for researchers and professionals in high-performance sport.

Purpose and approach: This paper arises from a theoretical analysis of the research studies presented in this special issue. The analysis undertaken focused on the understanding and representation of the concepts of learning and culture and critically examined the methodological application of particular conceptualisations. The intention was to extend insight into both theoretical and methodological issues associated with understanding and researching athlete and coach learning, and high-performance sport settings.

Findings and discussion: This paper identifies tendencies for separatist and reductionist thinking about learning and culture in high-performance sport settings. A relational perspective is identified as critical to extending research and professional practice that is directed towards learning and/or culture. Researchers are urged to avoid identifying either athlete or coach learning (only) with specific events or experiences, and similarly avoid positioning culture as something that sits apart from athletes’ and coaches’ participation and learning in elite sport settings. The dual notions of ‘learning practices as cultural practice’ and ‘cultural practice as pedagogical practice’ are proposed as a basis for holistic thinking about learning and culture in high-performance sport settings. The extent to which such thinking is reflected in the various contributions to the special issue is considered. Attention is then directed to the methodological challenges that researchers face if they are to reflect a conceptualisation of learning as both embedded and embodied in cultural practices. Challenging and extending the underlying vision of learning that researchers, coaches and athletes have is revealed as a critical consideration in regard to research design, data collection and ways in which participants are variously positioned, represented and ‘involved’ in research. Embodied perspectives are identified as particularly worthy of greater attention in contemporary research that seeks to extend understanding of athlete and/or coaches’ learning and lived experiences within and amidst elite sporting cultures. Recent scholarship focusing on the body and lived experience is identified as providing theoretical and methodological insights that can extend future research and practice.

Conclusions: Foregrounding a relational perspective is fundamental to extending the understanding of learning and culture in high-performance sport. Future research also needs to clearly embrace the methodological challenges presented by new conceptualisations.     

Valued learning experiences of early career and experienced high-performance coaches

Background and purpose: This paper attempts to move the discussion of high-performance coach development from an examination of coaches' volume of experiences towards a consideration of the contribution of the learning experiences that coaches have reported throughout their careers. Furthermore, a discussion of proximal and distal guidance in the development of coaches was investigated. We examined the kinds of learning experiences within the framework of workplace learning and specifically the situated nature of learning and the view that learning occurs through social participation.

Method: Nineteen high-performance coaches participated in this study, including 10 scholarship and 9 mentor coaches (MCs). Participants rated a list of 14 developmental activities derived from empirical research on a seven-point Likert scale (0?=?not used, 1?=?of little value, to 7?=?extremely valuable). Each participant coach rated the 14 (guided, unguided) activities in the first two years of their coaching career, middle two years, and final two years. To analyse the data and identify the key trends for both the scholarship and MCs we examined statistical differences between scores for each of the sources the non-parametric Friedman test was used (p?<?.01). Significant χ² results were followed up with the Wilcoxon (two-tailed) T-test (p?<?.05) to identify statistically significant differences between scores at different time intervals.

Results: Three key findings emerged from these data: (i) reported increased valuing of a range of developmental experiences over time; (ii) temporal variance in the value of different learning sources at different stages of their careers; and (iii) an acknowledgement of the shift away from an emphasis on proximal learning sources for the MC and the shift towards proximal sources for the scholarship coach.     

In pursuit of becoming a senior coach: the learning culture for Australian Football League coaches

Background and Purpose: Given the turbulent and highly contested environment in which professional coaches work, a prime concern to coach developers is how coaches learn their craft. Understanding the learning and development of senior coaches (SCs) and assistant coaches (ACs) in the Australian Football League (AFL – the peak organisation for Australian Rules Football) is important to better develop the next generation of performance coaches. Hence the focus of this research was to examine the learning of SC and AC in the AFL. Fundamental to this research was an understanding that the AFL and each club within the league be regarded as learning organisations and workplaces with their own learning cultures where learning takes place. The purpose of this paper was to examine the learning culture for AFL coaches.

Method: Five SCs, 6 ACs, and 5 administrators (4 of whom were former coaches) at 11 of the 16 AFL clubs were recruited for the research project. First, demographic data were collected for each participant (e.g. age, playing and coaching experience, development and coach development activities). Second, all participants were involved in one semi-structured interview of between 45 and 90 minutes duration. An interpretative (hierarchical content) analysis of the interview data was conducted to identify key emergent themes.

Results: Learning was central to AFL coaches becoming a SC. Nevertheless, coaches reported a sense of isolation and a lack of support in developing their craft within their particular learning culture. These coaches developed a unique dynamic social network (DSN) that involved episodic contact with a number of respected confidantes often from diverse fields (used here in the Bourdieuian sense) in developing their coaching craft. Although there were some opportunities in their workplace, much of their learning was unmediated by others, underscoring the importance of their agentic engagement in limited workplace affordances.

Conclusion: The variety of people accessed for the purposes of learning (often beyond the immediate workplace) and the long time taken to establish networks of supporters meant that a new way of describing the social networks of AFL coaches was needed; DSN. However, despite the acknowledged utility of learning from others, all coaches reported some sense of isolation in their learning. The sense of isolation brought about by professional volatility in high-performance Australian Football offers an alternative view on Hodkinson, Biesta and James' attempt in overcoming dualisms in learning.     

What makes an orienteer an expert? A case study of a highly elite orienteer's concerns in the course of competition

Abstract

This article reports a highly elite orienteer's cognitive activity over the course of two international competitions. We characterize the orienteer's concerns in relation to the problems raised during the competitions. The participant wore a head-mounted video camera throughout the competitions to enable the capture of an events record from the participant's perspective. During a post-performance self-confrontation interview, the participant was played the video and asked to describe his activity in relation to the events observed. The interview data were then used to identify the orienteer's concerns at each instant during the races. These “local” concerns were then compared and subsequently classified to characterize the typical concerns of the participant. Results showed three typical concerns: (a) find the controls faster than the opponents; (b) optimize running pace throughout the race; and (c) reflect on actions undertaken during performance. Results suggest the performer used a range of knowledge-driven strategies that enhanced the efficiency of task performance, and flexibly switched between strategies and decision-options in the face of presented changes in the task status. He also engaged in various reflective processes concurrent with performance that augmented the use of these strategies. In conclusion, this study provides insight into the cognitive processes underlying expert performance in sports characterized by decision-making under complexity, uncertainty, and time pressure.     

‘What an absurdity’: Penny Chuter and the polemics of progress in British rowing during the early 1970s

ABSTRACT

‘What an absurdity’: thus railed ‘P. Barnsby, Male Coach’ in the Letters page of Rowing magazine in August 1973, on the appointment of Penny Chuter as professional rowing coach for the Amateur Rowing Association (ARA). The flurry of responses prompted by his letter suggest that his views were not aligned with the majority of the rowing community; yet women’s role and position in the sport was still highly contested. Chuter’s appointment as an ARA National Coach, an elite level role with responsibility for the national squad as well as coach education in clubs, complicated and extended this polemic. Situated at the intersection of societal fears around female athleticism, employment and leadership – and the ideological conflict within the conservative Amateur Rowing Association about professional coaches regardless of gender – it provoked the rowing community to express some of its most profound uncertainties and anxieties about gender, and about the sport itself and the manner in which it should be undertaken. This paper explores these anxieties within the social context of second wave feminism and related shifts in gender norms, and the sporting context of British amateur rowing in the late 1960s and the early 1970s.     

‘I'm your teacher,I'm Brazilian!’ Authenticity and authority in European capoeira

Capoeira, the Brazilian dance and martial art is now globalised and taught widely outside Brazil. Instruction is provided by Brazilians who are living in self-imposed exile from their homeland. The authentic capoeira that such teachers provide is a major attraction for non-Brazilian students. However, there is little research available on the motivations and strategies of overseas capoeira instructors. Building on a long term ethnographic study, this paper showcases the goals and strategies of one successful Brazilian teacher, from the Beribazu Group of Capoeira, working in the UK. This teacher reflects upon his four interlocking aims for his students and the strategies for achieving them. They should develop social cohesion, appreciate Brazilian culture, play good capoeira and learn to move their bodies acrobatically, flexibly and beautifully. Two sociologists embed the teacher's perspective on his work in an analytic framework derived from Bourdieu.     

Normalization effect of sports training on blood pressure in hypertensives

Abstract

In this study, we assessed the extent to which 2000-m rowing ergometer performance predicted final rankings at the World Junior Rowing Championship in a sample of 398 junior rowers competing in 13 events. The rowers' ergometer performance times were examined using a questionnaire, and in all 13 events they correlated (P ≤ 0.039) with the final rankings at the Championship. The strongest correlations were observed for ergometer performance times in junior women's single sculls (r = 0.92; P < 0.001), followed by junior men's single sculls (r = 0.80; P < 0.001) and junior women's double sculls (r = 0.79; P < 0.001). The observed correlations were higher for smaller boats – singles, doubles, and pairs (r = 0.64–0.92; P ≤ 0.025) – than for larger boats – quads, fours, and eights (r = 0.31–0.70; P ≤ 0.039). Linear regression analyses were used to construct regression equations to predict final rankings based on 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times for each event. Although correlations in 10 of the 13 events were above r = 0.5, the large standard errors of the estimate impaired the prediction of rankings in all of the studied events. Using these equations, the most probable rowing ergometer performance times required for a particular ranking in a given rowing event might easily be calculated.     

Reliability and discriminative ability of a modified Wingate rowing test in 12- to 18-year-old rowers

Abstract

We evaluated (1) the test–retest reliability of the Wingate test conducted on a rowing ergometer, and (2) the sensitivity of this test in determining the differences in performance attained by 12- to 18-year-old rowers. Altogether, 297 male rowers aged 12.0–18.9 years (mean ± s: 14.8 ± 1.7) completed a maximal 30-s test on a rowing ergometer, and 80 rowers representing all age groups were retested after 5–7 days. No change was evident in participants' performance in terms of mean power output (P = 0.726; Cohen's d = 0.04), maximal power output (P = 0.567; Cohen's d = 0.06), and minimum power output (P = 0.318; Cohen's d = 0.11) in the second test. The intra-class correlation coefficients were high (≥0.973) and coefficients of variation were low (≤7.3%). A series of analyses of variance were used to compare the performances among 12- to 18-year-old rowers, and age-related increases in performance were evident (P < 0.001; Cohen's d = 1.91–1.96). The age-related increases in performance were similar, although reduced, when the effects of body mass were partitioned out when using analysis of covariance (P < 0.001; Cohen's d = 0.82–0.85). The results suggest that: (1) the described test is reliable and can be used for maximal-intensity exercise assessment in youth rowing, and (2) it discriminates performance among 12- to-18-year-old rowers.     

Muscle cross-sectional areas and performance power of limbs and trunk in the rowing motion

Although it is clear that rowers have a large muscle mass, their distribution of muscle mass and which of the main motions in rowing mediates muscle hypertrophy in each body part are unclear. We examine the relationships between partial motion power in rowing and muscle cross-sectional area of the thigh, lower back, and upper arms. Sixty young rowers (39 males and 21 females) participated in the study. Joint positions and forces were measured by video cameras and rowing ergometer software, respectively. One-dimensional motion analysis was performed to calculate the power of leg drive, trunk swing, and arm pull motions. Muscle cross-sectional areas were measured using magnetic resonance imaging. Multiple regression analyses were carried out to determine the association of different muscle cross-sectional areas with partial motion power. The anterior thigh best explained the power demonstrated by leg drive (r ² = 0.508), the posterior thigh and lower back combined best explained the power demonstrated by the trunk swing (r ² = 0.493), and the elbow extensors best explained the power demonstrated by the arm pull (r ² = 0.195). Other correlations, such as arm muscles with leg drive power (r ² = 0.424) and anterior thigh with trunk swing power (r ² = 0.335), were also significant. All muscle cross-sectional areas were associated with rowing performance either through the production of power or by transmitting work. The results imply that rowing motion requires a well-balanced distribution of muscle mass throughout the body.     

Adopting a models-based approach to teaching physical education

Background: The popularised notion of models-based practice (MBP) is one that focuses on the delivery of a model, e.g. Cooperative Learning, Sport Education, Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility, Teaching Games for Understanding. Indeed, while an abundance of research studies have examined the delivery of a single model and some have explored hybrid models, few have sought to meaningfully and purposefully connect different models in a school's curriculum (see Kirk, D. 2013. ‘Educational Value and Models-based Practice in Physical Education.’ Educational Philosophy and Theory 45 (9): 973–986.; Lund, J., and D. Tannehill. 2015. Standards-based Physical Education Curriculum Development. 3rd ed. Burlington, MA: Jones &; Bartlett.; Quay, J., and J. Peters. 2008. ‘Skills, Strategies, Sport, and Social Responsibility: Reconnecting Physical Education.’ Journal of Curriculum Studies 40 (5): 601–626.). Significantly none, to date, have empirically investigated broader notions of MBP that make use of a range of different pedagogical models in/through the PE curriculum (Kirk, D. 2013. ‘Educational Value and Models-based Practice in Physical Education.’ Educational Philosophy and Theory 45 (9): 973–986.).

Aim: To provide a first empirical insight into using a MBP approach involving several models to teach physical education. At its heart, this paper presents the reader with the realistic and nuanced challenges that arise in striving towards, engaging with, planning for, and enacting a broader, multimodel notion of MBP.

Method: While the study itself was broader, we focus primarily on three units (one using Cooperative Learning, one using a Tactical Games/Cooperative Learning hybrid and a third using Sport Education) taught to boys in two different age groups (i.e. 11–12 and 14–15). Two analytical questions inform and guide our enquiry: (1) What do we learn about MBP implementation through this project that would help other physical education practitioners implement a multimodel MBP approach? and (2) What are the key enablers and constraints of early MBP implementation? Data sources included (a) 21 semi-structured interviews with student groups, (b) teacher post-lesson and post-unit reflective analyses, (c) daily teacher reflective diaries, and (d) teacher unit diaries. Data were analysed comparatively considering the two analytical questions.

Results: The data analysis conveys strong themes around the areas of teacher and student prior learning, working toward facilitating a change in practice, sufficient time to consider changes in practice, and changing philosophies and practices. The results suggest that the consistent challenge that arose for the teacher towards the goal of adopting a MBP approach was the reduction of his overt involvement as a teacher. While the teacher bought into the philosophy of multimodel MBP he was continually frustrated at not progressing as quickly as he would like in changing his practice to match his philosophy.

Conclusions: Despite his best intentions, early attempts to use a multimodel MBP approach were limited by the teacher’s ability to re-conceptualise teaching. The teacher made ‘rookie mistakes’ and tried to transfer his normal classroom practice onto paper handouts while simultaneously inviting students to play a more central role in the classroom. In considering this journey, we can see an indication of the investment needed to implement a MBP approach. Pedagogical change in the form of MBP is a process that needs to be supported by a community of practice intent on improving learning across multiple domains in physical education.     

Lower limb reaction force asymmetry in rowers with and without a history of back injury

Back injury is common in rowers. Asymmetrical lower limb reaction force on the foot stretchers during rowing may compromise trunk biomechanics and lead to back injury. However, such a mechanism remains putative. Therefore, this study examined lower limb reaction force in experienced rowers with and without a history of back injury. Six rowers who suffered from back injury for more than one week in the past year and another 19 rowers who were never injured performed maximal exertion rowing on a fixed-head rowing machine for 30 strokes. Peak force, average and peak loading rate of the lower limb reaction force during the middle 10-stroke were recorded using strain-gauge transducers placed at the foot stretchers. Asymmetries and intra-limb variability were quantified as asymmetry indices and coefficients of variation, respectively. No significant asymmetry was observed in all selected kinetic parameters between the injured and healthy rowers (p = 0.448–0.722, Hedges' g = 0.162–0.310). Subgroup analyses also did not reveal any significant kinetic differences between injured and healthy scullers or sweepers (p = 0.194–0.855, Hedges' g = 0.203–0.518). Rowers with a history of back injury, regardless of the rowing types, did not demonstrate greater lower limb reaction force asymmetry when compared with healthy rowers.     

The effect of menstrual cycle on 2000-m rowing ergometry performance

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of menstrual cycle phase on 2000-m rowing ergometry performance. Since high concentrations of oestrogen, indicative of the mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, tend to decrease glycogen utilization and reduce blood lactate concentration, it was predicted that time taken to complete a 2000-m rowing trial would be shorter in the mid-luteal phase. Ten eumenorrhoeic, recreationally trained, female volunteers (mean age 33.0 years, s=7.1) completed 2000-m time trials on a Concept 2 rowing ergometer, in both the mid-follicular and mid-luteal phases of their menstrual cycle. In each phase, a 3-min incremental rowing protocol was used to determine a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol · l^?1 (T _lac-4mM) and maximum oxygen consumption (VO_2max); a five-stroke maximal test was used to establish maximal power. Order of testing was randomized for menstrual cycle phase. Variables (T _lac-4mM, VO_2max, maximal power) were correlated with speed in the 2000-m time trials, and the effect of menstrual cycle phase on these variables was examined. A blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol · l^?1 occurred at a significantly higher mean exercise intensity (mid-luteal vs. mid-follicular: 169.1 W, s=39.1 vs. 159.0 W, s=38.3; P=0.033), heart rate (179 beats · min^?1, s=9 vs. 173 beats · min^?1, s=11; P=0.0047), and oxygen consumption (2.64 litres · min^?1, s=0.66 vs. 2.42 litres · min^?1, s=0.62; P=0.04) in the mid-luteal phase than in the mid-follicular phase. There was no significant difference (P=0.11) in 2000-m time trial speed according to menstrual cycle phase. In conclusion, although T _lac-4mM differed due to menstrual cycle phase, 2000-m rowing performance was unaffected. Further research into the effects of menstrual cycle on rowing performance of a longer duration, among a more homogenous group of females, is recommended.     

Media,digital technology and learning in sport: a critical response to Hodkinson,Biesta and James

Background: In their 2008 paper, Hodkinson, Biesta and James draw on the sociological theories of Pierre Bourdieu to construct what they claim is a ‘holistic’ theoretical framework for understanding learning. While not an attempt to dissolve the long-standing opposition between ‘cognitive’ and ‘situated’ theories, the authors claim that thinking about learning and learners in ‘cultural’ terms via Bourdieu's theories allows us theoretically to integrate individuals and learning contexts. The result, they claim, is a ‘scalable’ theory of learning that overcomes the dualisms – such as structure/agency and individual/society – that dog learning theory. We welcome both Hodkinson et al.’s ideas and overall goal. However, we were struck by the absence of any mention of communications media or digital technology in their theoretical framework. Does this mean that media and digital technology can straightforwardly be mapped onto Hodkinson et al.’s theory? Or is this a serious oversight?

Purpose: Given the large amount of recent theorising about the transformative educational potential of media and digital technology – admittedly much of it speculative and hyperbolic – there appear to be some grounds for troubling some of Hodkinson et al.’s ideas by prioritising the effects of media and digital technology on learning.

Methods: We used two examples of learning in sports, one historical and the other contemporary, to consider the theoretical implications of media and digital technology's role in sports learning. The first explores the ways professional footballers learned to produce displays of emotion during the 1950s and 1960s. Our second example presents data from semi-structured interviews with downhill longboard skateboarders and focuses on how these young people use and think about digital technology as they learn their sport.

Findings: While not rejecting Hodkinson et al.’s preference for Bourdieu's sociological theories, we draw on other theories that do not see the relationship between the ‘individual’ and ‘society’ as their conceptual starting point. To this end, we touch on Actor Network Theory (ANT), ‘connectivism’ and the theoretical work of Deleuze and Guattari in order to at least question whether Bourdieu's ideas are sufficiently flexible or dynamic to account for learning in media- and technology-saturated environments. Most obviously, rather than the individual/society dualism which Hodkinson et al. simultaneously question but also rely on, are there advantages in using ‘flatter’ metaphors such as the ‘network’ to understand learning?

Conclusions: We agree with Hodkinson et al.’s point that theories are tools for thinking with and that their metaphorical power can and should be harnessed to improve the way we teach. It is for this reason that we question Hodkinson et al.’s claim to offer a ‘holistic’ theory of learning. All theories, like metaphors, have real-world limitations and this is why we should always be suspicious of theories that claim to be able to ‘see’ the world from all angles and, perhaps more fundamentally, to dissolve the dualisms that they are built on. Theories are always a partial view from somewhere and just as they help us to see some things, they do so by demanding that we not see others.     

Barriers and facilitators to using digital technologies in the Cooperative Learning model in physical education

Background: The influence of technology on children’s everyday lives is significant in today’s society, with children described as digital natives and/or the iGeneration. There are also a range of digital technologies available for use in education and a number of pedagogical approaches reported to support technology integration and pupil learning in physical education contexts. The use of technology by practitioners at present, however, is far from omnipresent. Consequently, the mechanisms that can support practitioners to use digital technologies to help pupils learn optimally in physical education requires further attention.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the barriers and facilitators to purposeful technology integration when using the Cooperative Learning model in physical education.

Research design: Data are presented from an action research project that focussed on how a teacher-researcher used iPads (tablet personal computers) within the Cooperative Learning model to support pupil learning. An athletics (track and field) unit was taught to 2 separate classes (36 pupils in total) using the key features of the Cooperative Learning model. The teacher-researcher used action research as a professional learning mechanism to refine her practice through gathering data from focus groups interviews with pupils, teacher-researcher reflections and a colleague’s observation.

Data analysis: Data analysis was ongoing throughout the athletics units as part of the action research design. Following the unit, data were analysed through inductive analysis and constant comparison and the authors engaged in a peer examination process.

Findings: Unfamiliarity with technology and poor group cooperation were identified as initial barriers to pupil learning when integrating technology. Action research, however, and the process of reflection and collaborative inquiry acted as key facilitators for the teacher-researcher to learn how to use digital technology to support learning.

Conclusion: Findings challenge existing literature which position the ‘digital natives’ or iGeneration of today’s society as competent and able to use digital technologies to learn in formal educational contexts. Moreover, this study shows that selecting a well-defined pedagogical approach that has been previously reported to support technology use, such as Cooperative Learning, will not automatically result in positive learning experiences for pupils. If practitioners are to purposefully integrate digital technologies into physical education and ensure technology can help students to learn optimally, practitioners should engage with a reflexive process of learning, such as action research, to refine and develop their practices.     

Relationship between 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times and World Rowing Championships rankings in elite-standard rowers

Abstract

In this study, we evaluated the extent to which 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times predicted final rankings at the World Rowing Championships in a sample of 638 rowers of both sexes and body-mass classifications (i.e. open-category and lightweight rowers). Rowing ergometer performance times were examined using a questionnaire, and in 17 of 23 events they were positively correlated (P ≤ 0.049) with the final rankings at the Championships. The highest correlations were for the ergometer performance times achieved by rowers in lightweight men's single sculls (r = 0.78; P = 0.005), women's single sculls (r = 0.75; P = 0.002), men's single sculls (r = 0.72; P = 0.004), and lightweight men's double sculls (r = 0.72; P < 0.001). We used linear regression to establish regression equations to predict final rankings based on 2000-m rowing ergometer performance times for each event in which there was a correlation greater than r = 0.50. Although correlations in 12 events met this criterion, the large standard errors of the estimate hindered ranking predictions in all of the studied events. Regression equations could be used to determine the most probable 2000-m ergometer performance time for a rower to achieve specific rankings at the World Rowing Championships.