China’s Decisiveness in Olympic Bids: Leveraging International Sporting Mega-Events to Improve Beijing’s Odds of Success

Abstract

Through reviewing the 1993 Shanghai East Asian Games, the 2001 Beijing Summer Universiade and the 2014 Nanjing Summer Youth Olympics, this paper provides an in-depth account of how the organization and celebration of China’s international sporting events were decisively leveraged to improve Beijing’s chance of success in the three Olympic bids, respectively for the 2000 Summer Games, the 2008 Summer Games, and the 2022 Winter Games. The findings show China’s nationwide determination to entitle the capital city to hold the Summer and Winter Olympics as well as the synergy of its central and local authorities in handling international sporting affairs. They also reveal the keys that enable China to have become one of the most reliable spots on the planet for staging sporting mega-events and to gain long-lasing prestige in the global sports community.     

The ‘East Asian’ Olympic Games: what of sustainable legacies?

Sport has proven to be an unstoppable globalising force. The Olympic Movement has come to epitomise modernisation and the extent to which Western sport has become globalised. The philosophy of Olympism, once resting upon just two pillars of Excellence in Sport and Culture has since 1994 been underpinned by a third, the Environment. All of the Olympic Games host cities now have to support a responsible concern for environmental issues and with that the very sustainability of ‘our’ culture, and sport itself. They must do so by bequeathing a holistic positive legacy from their Games. This paper will analyse the three ‘Asian’ Olympic Summer Olympic Games – Tokyo 1964, Seoul 1988 and Beijing 2008 – by looking at the cultural, sporting and environmental legacies each has left.

The discussion of the concept of sustainability as an element of culture will embrace Littig and Griessler’s idea that social sustainability is about the quality of societies expressed through the nature-society relationships and is not merely an economically based notion.1 ?1.?Littig & Griessler, ‘Social Sustainability’, 72. In this paper we consider the three Asian Summer Olympic Games. Each has been related to a specific nodal point in the host country's national history, as a means of illustrating, indeed emphasising, the always unique impacts of context on event and process. Yet we propose that, locked as they are in distinct epochs and differing cultural, political and economic contexts, they are nonetheless marked in common by an Asian discourse heavily reliant upon economic and nationalistic motivations.

The progressive analysis of each Games demonstrates that although each was unique, particularly in regards to the expectations stakeholders had of ‘their Olympics’, all three host nations represented themselves as ‘modern hybrids’ by simultaneously demonstrating their modernised characters and emphasising their ancient cultures. The analysis demonstrates the holistic impact of these events by reference to the wide range of economic, social, cultural and sporting changes that have emerged for each host from each festival. The evaluation of the nature and significance of these legacies reemphasises the impact of the Olympic Games as a vehicle for social change and illustrates the transformative power of sport at national and global levels.     

Economic Changes Resulting from Seoul 1988: Implications for London 2012 and Future Games

South Korea has often been considered a successful host nation after the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games and their apparent positive economic, cultural, social and environmental legacies. The purpose of this essay is to offer an analysis of economic growth as a consequence of earlier Olympic Games and to extrapolate to the 2012 London Olympic Games and beyond to the forthcoming 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics. It is the intention of this essay to examine previous studies, economic indices of world banks and reports of each Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (OCOG). The hypothesis is that the Olympic Games have not positively influenced the economic growth of the host nations. The essay explores this conclusion with reference to London 2012. The essay will reveal past negative influences of the Olympic Games and ask the International Olympic Committee (IOC): ‘What is the IOC's responsibility to the host city after the Games?’ Finally, the essay will propose and recommend an economic tool to the IOC to ensure sustainable outcomes after the Games.     

日本冰雪运动发展模式及对我国冰雪运动跨越式发展的启示

日本是亚洲传统冰雪运动强国,通过两次举办冬奥会,逐步形成了较为成熟的冰雪运动发展模式。日本通过政府、社会和市场等多主体的密切合作制定了层级分明的《体育基本法》及政策支持体系。日本体育经费投入增长较快、分配合理,场馆建设迅速、运营方式灵活多样,"一贯制"培养体系发展模式为我国实现冰雪运动跨越式发展提供了诸多启发。完善竞技体育治理体系,变革冰雪运动发展方式;从"战略驱动"到"科技驱动"全面提升备战水平,从"要素驱动"到"创新驱动"推动冰雪运动跨越式发展,打造夏冬奥一体化发展模式;统筹规划资金来源与分配,科学布局设施建设与运营;构建"教育普及－社会推广－竞技提高"多边融合的人才协同培养模式;培育冰雪文化,营造社会氛围,加强国际交流,全面提升我国冰雪运动国际影响力。     

Circumventing Apartheid: Racial Politics and the Issue of South Africa's Olympic Participation at the 1984 Los Angeles Games

Behind the shadows of an Olympiad replete with tales of Cold War acrimony and lavish commercial excess, emerges South Africa's bureaucratic attempt to achieve readmission to the Olympic Movement prior to the 1984 Los Angeles Games. In the backdrop of the Reagan administration's conciliatory policy of ‘constructive engagement’ towards Pretoria, the all-white South African National Olympic Committee aspired to cease its two-decade-long sporting isolation in the southern California metropolis. Drawing upon archival materials from the International Olympic Studies Center and public debates in the leading national and sporting newspapers and periodicals of the time, this paper will detail and analyse how International Olympic Committee president Juan Antonio Samaranch was forced to navigate a tight political tightrope over the South African issue. Any concession towards Pretoria would have likely agitated the African-bloc nations – a powerful constituency on the IOC with a proclivity for boycotting Olympic Games – as well as the global-nexus of anti-apartheid groups that vehemently opposed South Africa's participation in Los Angeles.     

2022年北京冬奥会我国运动员奖牌预测与参赛策略--基于奥运会主场优势效应分析

以近10届冬奥会(第14—23届冬奥会)东道国为研究对象,系统研究冬奥会主办国金牌数量、奖牌数量、奖牌榜排名、不同运动分项奖牌数量等东道国优势特征,从国家竞技体育发展政策与经费投入、主场观众因素、场地熟悉程度、运动员参赛人数等角度分析冬奥会东道国优势效应产生原因;建立逻辑回归模型,预测我国运动员2022年北京冬奥会奖牌数量将创冬奥会参赛史最好成绩。借鉴冬奥会东道国办赛经验,提出我国运动员备战2022年北京冬奥会、创造冬奥会最佳参赛成绩策略:1)妥善应对疫情,实现参赛出彩目标;2)突出优势项目,确保运动员争金夺牌;3)利用场地优势,实现运动成绩新突破;4)适应观众氛围,发挥运动员最佳竞技状态;5)补齐项目短板,赛出运动员风格与水平。     

Reluctant mediator: Hong Kong,the two Koreas and the Tokyo Olympics

This essay examines the complex, and ultimately unsuccessful, negotiations between North and South Korea, undertaken with the encouragement of the International Olympic Committee during 1962–63 to form a united Korean team to participate in the Tokyo Olympics of 1964. In particular, it focuses on the role of Hong Kong, chosen as a ‘neutral’ site for the two Korean delegations to meet. It shows how the IOC's optimism for a ‘sporting’ solution was to founder on continued mutual suspicion and recriminations between the two Koreas and how the Hong Kong government's reluctance to get involved, the US political intervention, and North Korean participation in the GANEFO Games were all to complicate the process.     

北京冬奥会中国家形象塑造工作的几点思考

成功举办2022北京冬奥会,展现新时代中国国家形象是国家重要战略任务之一。国家利益是国家形象的本质归宿,主场外交是塑造国家形象的重要途径。因此,运用国际关系学和外交学中与国家形象相关的理论来考察和谈论冬奥会与国家形象塑造的问题是科学严谨的。结论:在有利国际环境中,冬奥会的建设如违背既有国际规则,则国家形象将会受损;在不利国际环境中,仍遵守既有国际规则,则国家形象将得以改善。作为东道国,北京冬奥会应在“主场外交”原则的指导下,通过赛事形象、文化展示、体育实力展示、议程设置和政策解读以及涉赛人员形象等5个方面塑造与提升国家形象。为了切实提升冬奥会国家形象建设的实效性,应在制定战略部署、提升“主场外交”意识、树立中国自信、合理定位媒体角色功能、掌握文化展示技巧以及聚合多部门功能等6个方面加以重视和完善。     

冬奥会会徽设计的审美价值研究

文章采用文献资料、比较分析等研究方法,以历届冬奥会会徽作为研究对象,从符号学、美学的视角解读冬奥会会徽中的奥运人文精神,并进一步探讨冬奥会会徽的审美发展趋势,丰富冬奥会视觉形象系统的理论研究,为冬奥会在视觉形象设计上更好地体现自身审美价值和社会功能提供新思路。     

Guangzhou: The Asian Games and the Chinese ‘Gold-Fest’ – Geopolitical Issues for Australia

At the Guangzhou Asian Games, the performances of China's athletes, the officials and the host city of Guangzhou were outstanding. China's journey to the Asian Games in Guangzhou and the accompanying political and sporting machinations throughout are considered in the initial discussion of this essay. The analysis subsequently focuses on Australia's metamorphosis as an ‘Asian’ nation and the sporting, cultural and diplomatic implications this could have for Australia and China. Would this signal Australia's egress from the Commonwealth Games and the Commonwealth per se, thus cutting the British Imperial umbilicus? The presence of Australia at the Asian Games may also enhance the soft power ambitions China has for its engagement in the Asian Games; succeeding in competitions that include a global sports ‘heavyweight’ like Australia would add kudos to the performances of Chinese athletes. How would Australia benefit from this shift? Considering Australia's geopolitical and economic ties with East Asia would an increased level of sporting engagement with China concomitantly produce cultural, economic and political successes? In the long term, Australia may inevitably become part of the post-colonial East Asian world: the future world of power, wealth and geopolitical influence.     

大冬会对扩大我国冰雪运动影响的综合效应

第24届世界大学生冬季运动会是中国继北京奥运会后再次呈现给世人的一次冰雪体育盛事。它的成功举办标志着中国综合国力的殷实与政治的稳定,同时也表明了中国人民对冬季奥林匹克运动会的渴望。通过文献资料和逻辑分析论述了中国哈尔滨举办大冬会从中国冰雪文化、冰雪经济、冰雪运动竞技水平等方面对扩大中国冰雪运动影响的综合效应。     

加深国人对冬季奥林匹克文化认识和参与程度的思考

奥林匹克运动产生于西方 ,现以发展成全球性的运动。奥林匹克运动不仅仅是体育竞技比赛和运动会 ,而且是一个特定的世界性的社会文化运动。当前 ,国人更多地是了解夏季奥林匹克运动 ,而对冬季奥林匹克运动的了解不是很多。如何使国人更深入了解冬季奥林匹克运动及其文化 ,首先应对奥林匹克与中国联系的历史有所了解 ,对指导这一运动的哲学思想和价值观有所认识 ,以便更多的人们参与 ,进而使国人在实践中 ,体验到奥林匹克是全人类的文化 ,中国应当作出自己的贡献。     

Winter Olympic Games,cities, and tourism: a systematic literature review in this domain

The purpose of this study is to present the current state of scientific knowledge on the Winter Olympic Games (2000 to present-day) and their urban and tourism-related impacts. To achieve this, a scoping review was performed using established methodology. Of the 1694 English and French peer-reviewed sources identified from 14 different databases, 47 met the specific inclusion criteria and were retained for analysis. Findings were divided into three sections according to our objectives: (1) methodological profiles of the selected articles; (2) urban impacts; (3) tourism-related impacts. First, the reviewed sources – mainly qualitative – generally showed that mega-events such as the Winter Olympic Games are a catalyst for the urban renewal of host cities. However, these urban transformations must be part of a global scenario to ensure long-term viability. Although research shows that the Games represent an opportunity for the development of the tourism industry, the scoping review showed mixed results in terms of tourist flows and the enhancement of the city’s image. The concluding remarks identify the limitations of this study and offer opportunities and areas of research regarding the next Winter Games.     

审美视阈下第22届冬奥会吉祥物设计的衍变及启示

冬奥会吉祥物是冬奥会的实体标识,通过外显的美学特征将设计理念、价值取向等文化因素蕴含其中,使其外部美的形象与内部美的精神融合在一起,展现举办地的民族特色,传递奥林匹克精神。运用文献综述、比较分析和归纳总结等方法,将历届冬奥会吉祥物的审美共性与个性进行分析,结合从第22届冬奥会吉祥物的设计所得到的真实美感和自然美、艺术美与科学技术美的完美融合,以及丰富的实体视觉符号和寓意美、民族特性与文化内涵的完美结合等多方面启示,深入探析冬奥会吉祥物的审美创造和欣赏。     

中国办赛“危”中寻“机”

当国际奥委会的TOP赞助商由12个缩减至9个，当2012年奥运会在英国《每日镜报》的笔下变成了“伦敦穷运会”，当迫于原材料价格上涨和货币贬值等原因，南非世界杯的场馆建设费用将至少超支3．2亿美元时，中国似乎成为了金融海啸中的一艘诺亚方舟。     

The Legacy of the Games of the New Emerging Forces and Indonesia’s Relationship with the International Olympic Committee

Abstract

The Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) often serve as an example of the entanglement of sport, Cold War politics and the Non-Aligned Movement in the 1960s. Indonesia as the initiator plays a salient role in the research on this challenge for the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The legacy of GANEFO and Indonesia’s further relationship with the IOC, however, has not yet drawn proper academic attention. This paper analyzes Indonesia’s interactions with the IOC until the present time, with a focus on the country’s involvement in sporting events under the patronage of the IOC (such as the Asian and Southeast Asian Games). In addition, two case studies demonstrate the variable relationship between the two actors. First, Indonesia only narrowly escaped sanctions over a dispute on the use of the Olympic logo in 2015. Yet, the country is named as host of the 2018 Asian Games, hence showing high ambitions to re-enter the international sports arena. These incidents illustrate the significance of conformity of local agencies towards the IOC with regard to political positions and power structures. The study opens the field to local – Asian – perspectives on interactions with the IOC.     

“一起向未来”:人类命运共同体视域下冬奥口号倡议的意义嬗变、价值追溯与国际诠释

“冬奥口号”是举办城市根据国际环境、国内现状以及自身本土化理解对奥林匹克精神和冬奥会理念的设计、表达与传播,其作为一种全球性的体育动员机制,具有体育公共外交的“倡议”功能。该文聚焦历届冬奥会的口号,通过对冬奥口号倡导机制的多维剖析,发现历届冬奥口号的倡导主题呈现出从“齐聚同一时空”到以“火焰”与“激情”为中心的诠释;通过对历届冬奥口号相关的国际主流媒体报道分析,发现冬奥口号的创制一直以来都在向世界传达“义利相兼”“开放包容”“命运与共”等与“人类命运共同体”价值观相契合的倡议理念。新冠肺炎疫情之下,北京冬奥会“一起向未来”的倡议则是人类命运共同体价值观下奥林匹克精神、办赛理念和奥运愿景的中国解读、中国诠释和中国表达。     

文化势能与奥林匹克文化传播

阐释文化势能对奥林匹克文化与奥运会主办国文化的非守衡传播的影响，建议奥运会主办国把本国文化镶嵌到奥林匹克文化中进行全球传播，从而完成从弱势文化到强势文化的势能转变。     

我国申办冬奥会志愿服务的前瞻性思考

通过对我国申办冬奥会、冬奥会志愿服务和冬季体育志愿服务之间的关系进行深入分析,阐述了申办冬奥会志愿服务具有的社会价值、文化价值、教育价值和经济价值,对在申办冬奥会过程中完善冬季体育志愿服务体系,做出培育冬季体育志愿者的社会资本,形成冬季体育志愿服务的持久化、常态化,建设专业化、制度化的冬季体育志愿服务队伍等一系列前瞻性思考,以期推动冬季体育运动在我国有一个新的更大的发展,成功申办和举办冬奥会.     

认知落差、媒体叙事与冬奥会的全球想象

2022年北京冬奥会的筹办和举办面临复杂的社会历史情境。通过实证分析发现,西方国家媒体对2014年索契、2018年平昌冬奥会的报道潜运了二元叙事结构以及“意识形态偏见”“国家利益竞争”“人道主义”等报道框架,干预了2届冬奥会的认知图景和全球想象。据此提出2022年北京冬奥会全球传播的5项基本原则:减轻政治负载;管理认知预期;传播主体多元化;在对话中寻求共识;善用新媒体平台。