Another failure to replicate Lynn's estimate of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans

In his comment on our literature review of data on the performance of sub-Saharan Africans on Raven's Progressive Matrices, Lynn (this issue) criticized our selection of samples of primary and secondary school students. On the basis of the samples he deemed representative, Lynn concluded that the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans stands at 67 when compared to UK norms after a correction of the Flynn Effect. We criticize his methods for being unsystematic. Here we select only those samples that were based on stratified or clustered random sampling and were deemed representative by the original authors. We again fail to replicate Lynn's low estimate of the average IQ of Africans. We argue that these scores are hard to interpret in terms of latent cognitive variables such as g because of the psychometric incomparability we established and because the Flynn Effect has yet to take hold in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Cognitive holding power,fluid intelligence,and mathematical achievement as predictors of children's realistic problem solving

The present study explored whether first and second order cognitive holding power perceived by children in mathematical classrooms, fluid intelligence, and mathematical achievement predicted their performance on standard problems, and especially realistic problems. A sample of 119 Chinese 4–6th graders were administered the word problem test, the cognitive holding power questionnaire, and Raven's standard progressive matrices. Results showed that: (1) children's fluid intelligence and general mathematical achievement significantly predicted their performance on both realistic and standard problems, however, second order cognitive holding power predicted their performance on realistic problems but not standard problems; (2) the relationship between first order cognitive holding power and children's correct answers to realistic problems was mediated by second order cognitive holding power; (3) children's performance on standard problems was significantly better than that on realistic problems, and children's performance on both types of problems improved with their grades.     

Spelling and Learning Style in Children

Summary Seventy‐two 11‐year‐old children were given a spelling test of 32 dictated words containing two levels of both visual and phonemic complexity. They were grouped, within sexes, in terms of their extraversion scores on the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory and quotients on Raven's Matrices. Their spelling performance was found to interact significantly with their level of extraversion, Raven's score and sex. Introvert boys were inferior in performance to girls in the high Raven's score group, but superior in the low group with little difference in the case of extraverts. The results were discussed in terms of the learning styles that are likely to underly extraversion and performance on Raven's Matrices.     

Differences in achievement not in intelligence in the north and south of Italy: Comments on ,

Lynn (2010a, 2010b) argued that individuals from south Italy have a lower IQ than individuals from north Italy, and that these differences in IQ are at the basis of north–south gap in income, education, infant mortality, stature, and literacy. In the present paper, we discuss several theoretical and methodological aspects which we regard as flaws of Lynn's studies. Moreover, we report scores of southern Italian children on Raven's Progressive Matrices and a north–south comparison for the PASS theory of intelligence as measured by the Cognitive Assessment System (Taddei & Naglieri, 2006). Both results reveal similar levels of performance of northern and southern Italian children in fluid intelligence and PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive) cognitive abilities.     

Cognitive processes and math performance: a study with children at third grade of basic education

The present study aims to examine the relationship between cognitive factors and mathematical achievement in primary education. Participants were 103 Portuguese third grade students, aged 8 and 9. All participants completed a battery for working memory (WMTB-C), a test of general intelligence (Raven's Progressive Color Matrices), a selective attention test (d2), and mathematical exercises (arithmetic story problems and measurement skills). Data suggested significant correlations between math performance, executive, visuospatial sketchpad and g factor. Our findings suggest the importance of the cognitive factors in two mathematical domains considered. In consonance with the research in this area, we conclude that working memory (WM) assumes an important role in different math curricular achievements.     

Sex and personality differences in French and German performance in British secondary school pupils

An experiment was performed to investigate the relationship between sex, personality and learning style and French and German performance in secondary school pupils. 432 13–14 year old children (216 boys and 216 girls) whose mother tongue was English were given the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory and Raven's Standard Matrices. Half of the subjects were then given three performance tests (comprehension, essay and prose translation), and the rest received three parallel German tests. The main findings were that, although pupils studied each language for the same time, German was easier than French, girls did better than boys, and that language performance increased with extraversion. The results were discussed in terms of their practical implications.     

The Improvement of Thinking Skills in Young Children using Computer Activities: a replication and extension

Summary In a replication and extension of a study by Riding & Powell (1985), 60 four‐year‐old nursery class children were given the Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices and were then randomly divided within sexes into two groups. A treatment group worked through 16 computer presented problem solving activities and where necessary received coaching. A control group did not do the problems, but spent the time on their normal nursery class activities. All the children were then re‐tested on Raven's Matrices. The results showed a significantly greater improvement between the pre‐ and post‐test scores for the treatment group than for the control group: The results were similar to those obtained in the previous study and suggest that a worthwhile improvement in thinking performance in young children can be obtained.     

Explorations of crystallized intelligence: Completion tests,cloze tests,and knowledge

An attempt is made to reconcile two historically important tools for the assessment of intelligence and the prediction of academic achievement with extant theories of verbal–crystallized–knowledge aspects of adult abilities. A study of 167 adults ranging in age from 18 to 69 reasserts the importance of individual differences in completion test and cloze test performance in accounting for both measures of crystallized intelligence (Gc) and four scales of knowledge (biology, U.S. history, U.S. literature, and technology). The completion tests were found to account for all of the variance in Gc and knowledge that the cloze tests accounted for, and resulted in incremental predictive validity for both domains. In addition, completion and cloze tests were found to have a suppressor effect on the relationship between Gc and Age. We note that C. Spearman's [The nature of “Intelligence” and the principles of cognition. New York: MacMillan (1927).] assertion, namely that the completion test had higher correlations with intelligence than any other measure. Our results suggest that abstract reasoning may be far less useful in predicting learning and performance than the completion test is.     

Intelligence assessment: Gardner multiple intelligence theory as an alternative

In the multiple intelligence framework, newer and more contextualized cognitive tasks are suggested as alternative to more traditional psychometric tests. The purpose of this article is to examine whether or not these two types of instruments converge into a general factor of cognitive performance. Thus, the Battery of General and Differential Aptitudes (BADyG: reasoning, memory, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude and spatial aptitude) and a set of Gardner's multiple intelligence assessment tasks (linguistic, logical, visual/spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic and musical intelligences) were administered to 294 children aged 5 to 7. The confirmatory factor analysis points out the absence of a common general factor considering both batteries, indicating instead the existence of two general factors, which gather the tests that encompass them. Also, these two general factors correspond to traditional and multiple intelligence assessments and show a statistically moderate correlation between them. These results challenge Gardner's original position on refusing a general factor of intelligence, especially when considering the cognitive dimensions measured which do not coincide with the more traditional tests of intelligence.     

Overlap between visual inspection time tasks and general intelligence

The stimulus display duration required for subjects to accurately compare the length of two line lengths (known as Inspection Time: IT), reliably correlates around 0.5 with general intelligence. It is not clear, however, if this correlation reflects general “speed of processing”, or some other element of the task. There is a consequent need for new experimental paradigms. We describe a novel IT task where participants viewed a sequence of eight briefly-presented coincident coloured circles, the first of which was presented for a variable duration. Participants reported the colour of the first circle. The threshold for perceiving this colour correlated 0.37 and 0.38 (p < 0.05) with two conventional IT tasks within a sample of 75 students. It also correlated significantly with scores on a timed measure of the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (r = − 0.39, p < 0.01). The implications of these results for the validity of the concept of IT are discussed.     

Psychological Assessment of High Ability: worldwide‐used Wechsler's intelligence scales and their psychometric shortcomings

Because the psychological assessment of high ability usually concentrates on intelligence testing, it is pertinent to discuss the validity of intelligence test batteries. The well‐known Wechsler's scales are analyzed and evaluated. Based on psychometric models, especially the Rasch model, analyses are made of some German editions, which show that hardly a single subtest scores fairly. That is, the true extent of testees’ abilities will not be correctly represented by the scores obtained under current scoring rules. Since many of the items of the analyzed editions correspond to items of the American edition (WISC‐R), the same shortcomings must also be suspect for that test battery. In this light, the administration of these tests is no longer acceptable. However, it is shown that Wechsler's basic concept is worthwhile when accompanied by (modern) psychometric tools: a new (German) test battery, AID, is introduced which, in particular, conforms to economic requirements if high ability is to be assessed.     

Sex differences in self‐estimation of multiple intelligences among Portuguese adolescents

This study investigated the relationship among sex, attitude toward intelligence, and self‐estimation of multiple intelligences for self and parents among Portuguese adolescents in secondary schools. Two hundred and forty‐two adolescents estimated their own and their parents' IQ scores on each of Gardner's 10 multiple intelligences: verbal (linguistic), logical (mathematical), spatial, musical, body‐kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, spiritual, and naturalistic. They also answered six simple questions concerning intelligence and intelligence tests. There were various sex differences in self‐estimated IQ: males rated themselves higher on overall, mathematical, spatial, intrapersonal, spiritual, and naturalistic IQ compared with females. Multiple regressions indicated that verbal, logical, and intrapersonal intelligence were significant predictors for self and parents overall IQ estimations. Factor analysis of the 10, the 8, and the 7 self‐estimates scores did not confirm Gardner's classification of multiple intelligences. Males were more likely to believe in sex differences in intelligence than females. Results are discussed in terms of the growing literature in the self‐estimates of intelligence, as well as limitations of that approach.     

Assessing working memory capacity in a non-native language

The present studies directly test the usefulness of two English-language working memory capacity (WMC) assessments with two samples of students whose native language was not English. Participants completed two widely used complex span tasks, Reading Span (RSpan) and Operation Span (OSpan), in English. To determine whether the well-established relationship between WMC and Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM) would be observed when span tasks were not given in the native language of the participant, span scores were regressed against performance on the RAPM. Results indicated that while OSpan was a reliable and valid predictor of RAPM in non-native-English speakers, RSpan administered in English was not.     

Exploring the influences of MOOC design features on student performance and persistence

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) face persistent challenges related to student performance, including high rates of attrition and low student achievement scores. Previous studies that have examined the performance of students in MOOCs have done so using qualitative analysis and the quantitative analysis of small samples. This study is the first to examine general course features of MOOCs on a large scale and to quantify the influences of these course features on student performance. Informed by the theory of web-based online instruction, this study used two-stage K-means clustering to analyze more than 200 MOOCs that had enrolled about 300,000 students, identifying three patterns of course features among the MOOCs. A MANOVA test and follow-up statistical tests revealed that these patterns of course features influenced the MOOCs’ dropout rates and student achievement scores to statistically different degrees. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

On Motivation,Ability, and the Perceived Situation in Science Test Performance: A Person-Centered Approach With High School Students

This research examined between-group differences in test-related perceptions, engagement, and performance; and within-group predictors of science performance among groups of high school students characterized by different patterns of science motivation. Patterns of motivation were derived from Dweck's (1986) typology and were used to classify students as mastery oriented, ego oriented, helpless, or "unclassified by such a typology." Groups were then compared on their efficacy for performing successfully on science multiple-choice tests, constructed response tests, and performance assessments; their beliefs about the validity of each test format; and their actual performance on multiple-choice and constructed response items. Group differences in gender composition, test perceptions and engagement, and performance were found. Results are discussed in terms of Snow's (1994) theory of aptitude complexes and their relation to individual differences in performance.     

Teacher Education in,and for,a new Africa

Abstract

Many Africans regard the twenty-first century as the epoch of the rebirth or reawakening of the African continent. An African Renaissance is currently taking shape in the form of various initiatives (such as the creation of the New Partnership for Africa's Development) and of the structuring of organisations (such as the African Union). Teacher education in Africa cannot continue as in the past while all these initiatives are being taken. An agenda for the transformation of teacher education programmes in Africa is, therefore, proposed. Respect for the dignity of the human being, which is a feature of African philosophical anthropology for as long as human memory serves, forms the cornerstone of this agenda.     

The Effect on Reasoning,Reading and Number Performance of Computer‐presented Critical Thinking Activities in Five‐year‐old Children

Summary The performance of 64 five‐year‐old children on Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices, the Break‐through to Literacy Reading Scheme, and a test of mathematics was noted, and the children were designated as high or low initial performance on each by division at the medians. They were then randomly divided within sexes into two groups. A treatment group worked, over a 13 week period, through 32 computer presented problem‐solving activities while a control group did alternative activities. All the children were then re‐tested. The results showed a significantly greater improvement between the pre‐ and post‐test for the treatment group than for the control group on Raven's Matrices for both high and low initial performance. For reading the low initial attainment treatment subjects improved significantly more than the control. In mathematics there was no significant effect of the treatment. The results were discussed in terms of the skills underlying reading and number work.     

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY EVIDENCE FOR BRACKEN SCHOOL READINESS ASSESSMENT,THIRD EDITION,SPANISH FORM SCORES

Convergent and discriminant validity evidence was examined for scores on the Spanish Record Form of the Bracken School Readiness Assessment, Third Edition (BSRA‐3). Participants included a sample of 68 Hispanic, Spanish‐speaking children ages 4 to 5 years enrolled in preschool programs in Puerto Rico. Scores obtained from the BSRA‐3 Spanish Record Form were compared with scores from the Nonverbal Index of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition, and the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales, Second Edition. As expected, the correlation between school readiness scores and nonverbal intelligence was significant and moderate in the positive direction and the correlations between school readiness scores and behaviors were low. Discriminant validity evidence for BSRA‐3 scores was demonstrated using Steiger's Z test to compare correlations of similar and dissimilar constructs. As hypothesized, significant results emerged.     

The exchangeability of brief intelligence tests for children with intellectual giftedness: Illuminating error variance components’ influence on IQs

This study examined the exchangeability of total scores (i.e., intelligent quotients [IQs]) from three brief intelligence tests. Tests were administered to 36 children with intellectual giftedness, scored live by one set of primary examiners and later scored by a secondary examiner. For each student, six IQs were calculated, and all 216 values were submitted to a generalizability theory analysis. Despite strong convergent validity and reliability evidence supporting brief IQs, the resulting dependability coefficient was only .80, which indicates relatively low exchangeability across tests and examiners. Although error variance components representing the effects of the examiner, examiner‐by‐examinee interaction, the examiner‐by‐test interaction, and the test contributed little to IQ variability, the component representing the test‐by‐examinee interaction contributed about one‐third of the variance in IQs. These findings hold implications for selecting and interpreting brief intelligence tests and general testing for intellectual giftedness.