A comparative study of wall painting materials and techniques used in fifteenth century Austria by Frederich of Villach and his followers

One of the most important artistic circles in the first half of the fifteenth-century in Austria was the so-called ‘Older Villach's workshop’, founded by Frederic of Villach, a painter who was considered a master of fresco technique. A technical study was made of a number of wall painting cycles by the workshop of Frederic of Villach, first, to gain a broader knowledge of the painting techniques employed, and second, to allow comparison with a further group of wall paintings in Slovenia, which are stylistically related to this workshop and have been studied previously. Of special interest were artworks attributed to Frederic's son Johannes of Ljubljana and a number of other anonymous painters that show important similarities to Frederic's works. Samples of plasters and pigments were analysed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. An important difference in the composition of plasters was discovered between the selected artistic groups. The palette used comprised predominantly earth and other mineral pigments. The construction of the paintings from incisions and preparatory drawings to the final modelling is basically similar and shows workshop connections. The principal painting technique was a fresco. The results contribute to a wider knowledge concerning the materials and techniques employed in gothic wall paintings in the Alpine region and offer new information that can be used to inform the future conservation of these selected wall paintings.     

Materials and techniques: Early Buddhist wall paintings and sculptures at Sumda Chun,Ladakh

An assemblage of Buddhist wall paintings and sculptures dating to the twelfth/early thirteenth century are found distributed over the interiors of the temple complex at Sumda Chun, Ladakh. Detailed investigations carried out as part of a conservation project shed light on their antiquity and production technology. The sculptures are constructed with fine mud mortar applied over a wooden armature and affixed to the walls without any support from the ground. In both the sculptures and wall paintings, the paint layer is applied over a thin gypsum ground that functions as a white colourant where unpainted. For the paint layer, azurite, vermilion, and orpiment are the dominant mineral pigments utilized. Minium (red lead) has been used for preparatory drawings and as paint. Highlighting of special areas was achieved using a laminate of tin–lead alloy and gold on relief. Overall the material and techniques employed in the execution of the wall paintings and sculptures are consistent with those reported for other early sites in the region.     

Evaluation of the use of Funori for consolidation of powdering paint layers in wall paintings

Funori is a polysaccharide-based adhesive extracted from seaweeds and is generally used in the conservation of easel paintings for the consolidation of matte paint. It is appreciated since it does not change the optical properties of the consolidated materials and its mechanical properties do not change with ageing. Because of these characteristics, this research focused on the evaluation of Funori as a suitable material for the consolidation of powdering paint layers in wall paintings. Tests were carried out where Funori was applied onto painted plaster replicas, which were then artificially aged and investigated in order to evaluate the material's behaviour according to the specific properties and conditions of wall paintings. The effectiveness of the consolidation was evaluated from the point of view of adhesive power, as well as the interactions of Funori with some physical properties of the consolidated painting, such as colour and water vapour permeability and, therefore, its resistance to accelerated ageing and biological colonization. In addition, the behaviour of Funori applied on plasters contaminated with soluble salts, a frequent condition in wall paintings, was also evaluated.     

Maya blue: its presence in cuban colonial wall paintings

Abstract

A blue pigment frequently found in Cuban colonial decorative wall paintings from about 1750 to 1860 has been identified with the aid of thin-layer chromatography, IR spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis as ‘Maya blue’. This is the first reported occurrence of Maya blue from a period after the conquest and in a non-Mayan cultural area.     

Technical analysis of a Central Asian wall painting detached from a Buddhist cave temple on the northern Silk Road

A great number of Central Asian wall paintings, archeological materials, architectural fragments, and textiles, as well as painting fragments on silk and paper, make up the so called Turfan Collection at the Asian Art Museum in Berlin. The largest part of the collection comes from the Kucha region, a very important cultural center in the third to ninth centuries. Between 1902 and 1914, four German expeditions traveled along the northern Silk Road. During these expeditions, wall paintings were detached from their original settings in Buddhist cave complexes. This paper reports a technical study of a wall painting, existing in eight fragments, from the Buddhist cave no. 40 (Ritterhöhle). Its original painted surface is soot blackened and largely illegible. Grünwedel, leader of the first and third expeditions, described the almost complete destruction of the rediscovered temple complex and evidence of fire damage. The aim of this case study is to identify the materials used for the wall paintings. Furthermore, soot deposits as well as materials from conservation interventions were of interest. Non-invasive analyses were preferred but a limited number of samples were taken to provide more precise information on the painting technique. By employing optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and Raman spectroscopy, a layer sequence of earthen render, a ground layer made of gypsum, and a paint layer containing a variety of inorganic pigments were identified.     

Material analysis of the wall paintings in Xialu Temple,Tibet Autonomous Region,China

This wall paintings technology study in Xialu Temple was carried out by in situ investigations and laboratory analysis. The techniques used to analyze pigments, ground/white preparations, and binding media were: optical microscopy carried out with visible reflected light and ultraviolet light; polarized light microscopy; micro-Raman spectroscopy; micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; and scanning electron microscopy. The characterization of pigments, including the discovery of two rare organic pigments, improves knowledge about traditional Tibetan paintings. The analysis of the binding media and different types of ground/white preparations (asbestos, kaolin, and illite) allowed us to identify different stratigraphic compositions. Our findings indicate that the study areas were painted during at least four different time periods.     

Investigation of acetic acid bacteria isolated from the Kitora tumulus in Japan and their involvement in the deterioration of the plaster of the mural paintings

Abstract

The Kitora tumulus, which is thought to have been built around the late seventh to early eighth century, has beautiful mural paintings which were executed directly on a very thin layer of plaster in the stone chamber. When the paintings were found, the plaster was partly detached from the stone wall and the murals were therefore considered to be likely to fall off the wall with a casual touch or stimulation. Therefore, it was decided to detach the mural paintings and to store them flat and under controlled environmental conditions. This was initiated immediately after the excavation of the tumulus in 2004. However, fungal growth and biofilm development were observed within the stone chamber during the relocation work. In 2005, small holes containing black substances were observed on certain areas of the ceiling plaster, and following investigation an acetic acid bacterium, Gluconacetobacter sp., was isolated from the black substances. The bacterium was also isolated from the ceiling, floor, and east wall in the stone chamber in 2008 after the relocation of most of the paintings had been completed. These bacteria were shown to decompose calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), one of the primary components of the plaster, and to produce organic acids such as acetic acid. Additionally, they were observed to decrease the pH of the culture media significantly in the presence of ethanol and glucose. This is the first example of the characterization of acetic acid bacteria isolated from decayed plaster paintings, and it is likely that microbes such as these bacteria have been involved in the deterioration of the plaster. Chemicals to treat microbes in the Kitora tumulus during the relocation work were selected on the basis of their antimicrobial efficacy, low potential to cause adverse effects on the paintings, and low level of toxicity to humans, depending on the condition of the plaster or stone in each area. However, some chemicals, especially ethanol, may act as a carbon source, which could encourage the growth of microbes and thereby the production of acids by the microbes when diluted to a low concentration or in a degraded state. Moreover, prior contamination by other microbial species in the form of a biofilm could also encourage the growth of the acetic acid bacteria by providing low-molecular-weight organic materials as a nutrient source.     

Early Evidence of Modular Templates Used to Draw Human Figures on Mural Paintings: The Etruscan Tomba degli Scudi in Tarquinia

ABSTRACT

During recent conservation work carried out on the Etruscan mural paintings in the Tomba degli Scudi, (Tarquinia, 4th C. BCE), the study of the execution techniques led to an amazing discovery: human figures were composed using templates of single body parts. In the Tomba degli Scudi, the perfect overlap of limbs, chests, and heads was confirmed after processing rectified photogrammetric images of the wall paintings with photo editing software. The study also highlighted that such templates were probably made of rigid material and each one had three different sizes, in order to represent the hierarchical organization of the painted characters. In the past, scholars have demonstrated that templates were used to realize a number of Etruscan wall paintings. However, they had reported that only whole figures were reproduced. The notion that such templates consisted of single anatomical parts purposely created to portray figures in different poses never occurs in their studies. In fact, the use of modular templates, also called patroni and antibola, is acknowledged only from the Middle Ages onwards both in western and eastern art. Earlier evidence had never been found. This article aims to predate the use of modular shapes by about ten centuries, thus changing our knowledge of technologies whose tradition spans from the Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Consequently, a new approach to the study of transfer techniques of preparatory drawings in Etruscan wall paintings is established. Furthermore, this article shows that, as in the Middle Ages, the size of such templates was scaled up or down to create hierarchies among the painted characters.     

The conservation of wall paintings in Quito,Ecuador: two case studies

Abstract

Two projects undertaken as part of a Unesco project for the conservation of the cultural heritage of Ecuador are described. Wall paintings in the dome of the church of EI Sagrario in Quito had been damaged by watersoluble salts carried by penetrating rainwater. The dome was protected with a hydrophobic coating and allowed to dry out prior to treatment of the paintings. As part of a programme to train Ecuadorean specialists, paintings on the south wall of a cloister in the convent of San Diego were selected as a model of conservation work.     

Buddhist Wall Paintings at Nako Monastery,North India: Changing of the Technology Throughout Centuries

The technical study of wall paintings from the Buddhist temple complex at Nako, Western Himalayas, was one of the basic preconditions required for designing an appropriate conservation strategy. The complex, composed of four temples from the eleventh–twelfth century, offered a unique possibility to carry out a comprehensive research of technology and painting materials used in early and later western Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings as well as a comparative assessment with murals from other sites in the Western Himalayas. The study was based on extensive fieldwork and an integrated analytical approach comprising a wide range of non-destructive and micro-destructive methods. Answering the question of the coevality of paintings in the smaller temples with other original murals, the precise characterisation of binding media, the detection of the yellow dye gamboge and natural minerals posnjakite and brochantite identified for the first time in Himalayan murals, the clarification of technology of metal decoration, and the making of raised elements are some of the most exciting results which emerged from the research.     

The potential of portable TV holography for examining frescoes in situ

Abstract

The authors describe the application of TV holography, also known as electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), to the examination of wall paintings. The equipment usesfibre-optic illumination and a solid-state camera connected to a computer. Images made after the wall painting has been warmed slightly with an infrared lamp are compared with reference images; differences in the speckle pattern can be used to identify cracks and subsurface detachments. The system is robust and portable, allowing it to be used for the in situ investigation of wall paintings, including those exposed externally. It can also be used to monitor the condition of the work of art over time and to evaluate the success of any treatment.     

Microscopic Analysis of Wall Painting Techniques: Laboratory Replicas and Romanesque Case Studies in Southern Switzerland

The identification of painting techniques is an important aspect of any research related to historical, artistic, and conservation issues in the field of wall paintings conservation. There are a variety of different methodological approaches that can be used to identify wall painting techniques. In this study, the application of optical (PLM) and electron (SEM-EDX) microscopy was explored as they are complementary analytical techniques commonly used for micro-stratigraphic analysis of painted surfaces. Five replicas were prepared according to the technical procedures reported in medieval historical treatises, and the pigment was applied at different time intervals in order to monitor the modifications at the interface between the ground and pictorial layer. The comparison of data from the replicas with samples from Romanesque wall paintings in churches in Southern Switzerland and Northern Lombardy (Italy) allowed for an evaluation of the reliability of the proposed methodology and for the interpretation of the painting techniques.     

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介绍澳门的中央图书馆、澳门大学国际图书馆、澳门教科文中心、澳门联合国大学国际软件技术研究所及澳门的文化旅游业。     

澳门图书馆与CEPA下的澳门社会经济发展

介绍在CEPA条件下澳门社会经济发展的新形势,针对澳门图书馆拥有的丰富特色资源,指出建立定题服务中心,搭建科技信息平台,深化教育功能,促进第三产业发展等是澳门图书馆谋求新发展与世界图书馆同步发展的必由之路。     

The Frequent Occurrence of Atacamite in Medieval Swedish Murals

Copper trihydroxychloride [Cu₂Cl(OH)₃] exists with four polymorphs: atacamite, paratacamite, clinoatacamite, and botallackite. They have all been used as green pigments, usually under the name atacamite. For many years, atacamite was regarded as a pigment mainly used in ancient South America, China, and Egypt. However, the last decades have shown that atacamite has been found in European medieval paintings, and quite often in Sweden. This paper gives a brief overview of the history of atacamite and its polymorphs. Green pigments from medieval murals in 56 Swedish churches were analyzed. The results show that atacamite and malachite are common, while green earth is less frequent and green vivianite rare. In particular, atacamite often occurs in medieval wall paintings on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. The atacamite minerals are rare in Europe and are not found in the Swedish bedrock. Their occurrence in Swedish murals and their origin is discussed. Atacamite may be synthesized by various methods and is in fact often observed on corroded outdoor bronze statues in marine surroundings.     

Sound Practice and Practical Conservation Recipes as Described in Greek Post-Byzantine Painters’ Manuals

Post-medieval Greek painting manuals, exemplified by the Hermeneia of the Art of Painting by Dionysius of Fourna, were often copied, enriched, and widely used in icon-painter workshops until the twentieth century. These manuals reflect the accumulated experience of many generations of painters and include sections that pertain to preparation and application of materials and handling of works. Here we present, discuss, and, in some cases, compare with pertinent western instructions and experimental findings (deriving from the analysis of icons and wall paintings), key Greek manual instructions for sound practice, and practical conservation of paintings. Instructions in consideration come from both the published version of Hermeneia and various unpublished manuals; it is shown that the first part of the widely circulating standard edition of Dionysius is by no means an exhaustive account of post-Byzantine technical knowledge.     

发展中的澳门图书馆事业

澳门图书馆从早期的出现到蓬勃发展的今天,经历了几百年的历史。回归后的澳门图书馆在“一国两制”的科学理论指导下,必将为中国图书馆事业做出更大的贡献。     

关于汉代墓室壁画研究资源库建设的思考

洛阳汉代壁画是研究汉代社会的图像资料,具有重要的文献学价值。壁画的研究成果是地方文献特色资源的一部分,图书馆运用现代化科技手段和图书馆专业管理技能,参与对汉代壁画的保护和研究成果资料的整理推广活动,建立以汉代壁画研究为中心的成果资源数据库,为传承中华优秀文化做出贡献。     

Re-Discovering a Roman Wall Painting at Harvard: New Research on a Fragment from the Villa at Boscotrecase

ABSTRACT

This article presents historical and scientific analysis, as well as the conservation treatment of a newly rediscovered Roman wall painting fragment, now in the collection of the Harvard Art Museums. Although the piece has not previously been published, it was among a group of fragments removed from a Roman villa near Boscotrecase in southern Italy, an area that has been key to the study of Roman wall painting and other decoration. Technical imaging confirms the use of painting techniques consistent with other high-quality paintings in the area. Materials analysis revealed a palette consistent with published findings of Roman wall paintings, including abundant use of Egyptian blue and green earth. Of interest was the use of Egyptian blue as an optical brightener in select white passages. Despite the high quality of the painting, no cinnabar was present, and all red passages were achieved using hematite. Multiple different white minerals were identified including calcite, aragonite, and gypsum. The widespread presence of gypsum is unusual and may point to alteration.     

关于汉代墓室壁画研究资源库建设的思考

洛阳汉代壁画是研究汉代社会的图像资料,具有重要的文献学价值。壁画的研究成果是地方文献特色资源的一部分,图书馆运用现代化科技手段和图书馆专业管理技能,参与对汉代壁画的保护和研究成果资料的整理推广活动,建立以汉代壁画研究为中心的成果资源数据库,为传承中华优秀文化做出贡献。