Teaching for Wisdom in an Intergenerational High-School-English Class

Although the psychological benefits of intergenerational learning environments have been well documented, no study has yet investigated wisdom as an outcome of intergenerational classroom engagement. In this study, Elders between the age 60–89 were recruited to participate in a high-school English classroom. We hypothesized that participating in an intergenerational high-school classroom would benefit both Elders and Students by fostering the conditions for both groups to develop greater psychological wisdom. Our findings indicate that both Elders and Students actively engaged the five dimensions of wisdom identified by Webster (2003 Webster, J. D. (2003). An exploratory analysis of a self-assessed wisdom scale. Journal of Adult Development, 10(1), 13–22.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007 Webster, J. D. (2007). Measuring the character strength of wisdom. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 65(2), 163–183.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) during their time in the intergenerational class. Further, we find that while Students and Elders both demonstrated aspects of wisdom, they understood the concept of wisdom in strikingly different ways.     

BOOK REVIEW

The number of positive youth development (PYD) programs focusing on providing opportunities for optimal development has grown tremendously in recent years (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, &; Hawkins, 2004 Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A., Lonczak, H. S. and Hawkins, J. D. 2004. Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluation of positive youth development programs. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591: 98–124. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Larson and Walker (2010) Larson, R. W. and Walker, K. C. 2010. Dilemmas of practice: Challenges to program quality encountered by youth program leaders. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45: 338–349. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] assert that it is important to understand challenges program leaders face when implementing programs and strategies they use to overcome such challenges. However, little research or discussion in the literature has focused on the everyday challenges of implementing youth programs. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to present four case studies of programs implemented in four different countries designed to enhance the psychosocial development of underserved youth using the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility Model and/or life skills framework. Each case study is presented with a forthright discussion of the challenges faced and the strategies implemented to overcome these challenges. In addition, we offer potential strategies for furthering collaboration with nongovernmental organizations, enhancing program implementation, and transferring program ownership.     

Do We Fear Ageing? A Multidimensional Approach to Ageing Anxiety

Ageing anxiety is the expression of peoples' fear of ageing (Lynch, 2000 Lynch, S. M. (2000). Measurement and prediction of aging anxiety. Research on Aging, 22(5), 533.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Despite greater longevity in the population, there is a lack of research into this aspect of life (Lasher &; Faulkender, 1993 Lasher, K. P., &; Faulkender, P. J. (1993). Measurement of aging anxiety: Development of the Anxiety about Aging Scale. The International Journal of Aging &; Human Development, 37(4), 247–259.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). This research explored fears of ageing across four dimensions: Fear of Old People, Physical Appearance, Psychological Concerns, and Fear of Losses. Three hundred and forty eight participants aged 18–88 participated in an online survey. Findings were: (a) men and women have different fears of ageing; (b) greater quality contact is related to less ageing anxiety; (c) poor health is related to greater ageing anxiety, (d) ageism, defined by Nelson (2005 Nelson, T. D. (2005). Ageism: Prejudice against our feared future self. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 207–221.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) as prejudice toward ageing is positively correlated with ageing anxiety. The implications of these findings are that better quality contact and more positive attitudes toward ageing are associated with less ageing anxiety. As such, possible key target areas in developing appropriate interventions are provided, with hope to prepare adults of all ages for the inevitable—life is a terminal illness, so enjoy while you can.     

Freeing the Mind of the Oppressed

This article examines the evidence that supports and rebuts the claims of school resegregation. By examining both types of evidence and considering them complementary (James 1986 James, F. 1986. A new generalized “exposure-based” segregation index: Demonstration in Denver and Houston. Sociological Methods and Research, 14(3): 301–16. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kelly and Miller 1989 Kelly, P. and Miller, W. 1989. Assessing desegregation efforts: No “best measure.”. Public Administration Review, 49(5): 431–37. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the author gives the reader a deeper understanding of the current trends in school segregation. First, the literature on the topic of school segregation is discussed. Then follows a discussion of the methods used in the study and the findings. The conclusion includes implications of the findings.     

Getting Inside the Black Box: Examining How the Operation of Charter Schools Affects Performance

In recent years, a series of articles have examined the performance of charter schools with mixed results. Some of this research has shown that charter school performance varies by charter type or the age of the school (Bifulco &; Ladd, 2006 Bifulco, R. and Ladd, H. 2006. The impact of charter schools on student achievement: Evidence from North Carolina. Education Finance and Policy, 1: 50–90. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Buddin &; Zimmer, 2005 Buddin, R. and Zimmer, R. 2005. A closer look at charter school student achievement. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 24: 351–372. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Hanushek, Kain, &; Rivkin, 2002 Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., &; Rivkin, S. G. (2002). The impact of charter schools on academic achievement. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved May 19, 2006, from http://http://www.nber.org/～confer/2002/hiedf02/KAIN.pdf  [Google Scholar]; Sass, 2006 Sass, T. R. 2006. Charter schools and student achievement in Florida. Education Finance and Policy, 1: 91–122. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, this research has not examined the school attributes that lead to high- or low-achieving charter schools. In this article, we examine how student achievement varies with school operational features using student-level achievement and survey data for charter and a matched-set of traditional public schools from California. We did not find operational characteristics that were consistently related with student achievement, but we did identify some features that are more important at different grade levels or in charter schools versus in traditional public schools. We also examined the relationship between greater autonomy within schools, which is a major tenet of the charter movement, and student achievement and found very little evidence that greater autonomy leads to improved student achievement.     

Mathematics Achievement in the Netherlands and Appropriateness of the TIMSS Mathematics Test

Evaluators are frequently asked to assess the effectiveness of school programs implemented to improve academic achievement. School connectedness has been shown to be directly related to academic achievement (McNeely, Nonnemaker, &; Blum, 2002 McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M. and Blum, R. W. 2002. Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72: 138–146. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and is therefore of interest to evaluators. The construct of school connectedness has been shown to consist of 3 elements: connectedness to adults in schools, connectedness to peers, and connectedness to the school (Karcher &; Lee, 2002 Karcher, M. J. and Lee, Y. 2002. Connectedness among Taiwanese middle school students: A validation study of the Hemingway Measure of Adolescent Connectedness. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3: 92–114. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This paper reports the psychometric properties and factor analyses findings from a School Connectedness Scale (SCS) given to adolescents in 2 very different high schools in the Northeast, one a large urban school and one a medium-sized suburban school. The results indicate that the SCS is highly reliable with a stable factor structure across diverse populations. The broad applications of use for the instrument are discussed.     

Patterns of Early Reading and Social Skills Associated With Academic Success in Elementary School

Research Findings: Researchers and policymakers emphasize that early childhood is a critical developmental stage with the potential to impact academic and social-emotional outcomes (G. Conti &; J. J. Heckman, 2012 Conti , G. , &; Heckman , J. J. ( 2012 ). The economics of child well-being (No. w18466) . Washington , DC : National Bureau of Economic Research .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; J. J. Heckman, 2012 Heckman , J. J. ( 2012 ). The case for investing in young children . In B. Falk (Ed.), Defending childhood: Keeping the promise of early education (pp. 235 – 242 ). New York , NY : Teachers College Press . [Google Scholar]; R. Murnane, I. Sawhill, &; C. Snow, 2012 Murnane , R. , Sawhill , I. , &; Snow , C. ( 2012 ). Literacy challenges for the twenty-first century: Introducing the issue . The Future of Children , 22 ( 2 ), 3 – 15 .[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]). Although there is substantial evidence that children's early prereading skills predict later academic achievement (K. M. La Paro &; R. C. Pianta, 2000 La Paro , K. M. , &; Pianta , R. C. ( 2000 ). Predicting children's competence in the early school years: A meta-analytic review . Review of Educational Research , 70 , 443 – 484 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), there have been mixed findings regarding the contribution of early social skills to later achievement (e.g., G. J. Duncan et al., 2007 Duncan , G. J. , Dowsett , C. J. , Claessens , A. , Magnuson , K. , Huston , A. C. , Klebanov , P. , … Brooks-Gunn , J. ( 2007 ). School readiness and later achievement . Developmental Psychology , 43 , 1428 – 1446 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Using data from the national Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort, we found that subgroups of children with a combination of low/average reading skills and higher levels of social skills (86% of the sample) in kindergarten performed better on later academic assessments than children with similar reading skills but lower levels of social skills during kindergarten. In contrast, children who were very strong early readers (14% of the sample), regardless of their level of social skills, performed similarly on the 5th-grade academic outcomes. Practice or Policy: Implications for early education and policy are discussed.     

Literacy Teachers Engage in Service-Learning via Community Organization Involvement

Service-learning provides community service as well as authentic, curriculum-driven learning experiences (Furco &; Root, 2010 Furco, A. and Root, S. 2010. Research demonstrates the value of service-learning. Kappan, 91(5): 16–23. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and has been an effective component of teacher education courses (García, Arias, Murri, &; Surna, 2010 García, E., Arias, M. B., Murri, N. J. H. and Serna, C. 2010. Developing responsive teachers: A challenge for a demographic reality. Journal of Teacher Education, 61: 132–142. doi:10.1177/002248710934787[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Mitton-Kukner, Nelson, &; Descrochers, 2010 Mitton-Kukner, J., Nelson, C. and Desrochers, C. 2010. Narrative inquiry in service-learning contexts: Possibilities for learning about diversity in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26: 1162–1169. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.01.001[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Spencer, Cox-Petersen, &; Crawford, 2005 Spencer, B. H., Cox-Petersen, A. M. and Crawford, T. 2005. Assessing the impact of service-learning on preservice teachers in an after-school program. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(4): 119–135.  [Google Scholar]). With these authentic experiences, teachers construct conceptions of literacy learning as broader than classroom teaching and learning. This study investigates how 54 preservice elementary teachers (hereafter called teachers) learned about literacy development and cultural responsivity by engaging in a service-learning experience.     

Associations Between Low-Income Children's Fine Motor Skills in Preschool and Academic Performance in Second Grade

Research Findings: Given the growing literature pertaining to the importance of fine motor skills for later academic achievement (D. W. Grissmer, K. J. Grimm, S. M. Aiyer, W. M. Murrah, &; J. S. Steele, 2010 Grissmer , D. W. , Grimm , K. J. , Aiyer , S. M. , Murrah , W. M. , &; Steele , J. S. ( 2010 ). Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school readiness indicators . Developmental Psychology , 46 , 1008 – 1017 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the current study examines whether the fine motor skills of economically disadvantaged preschool students predict later academic performance in 2nd grade. More specifically, we expand on the current literature and evaluate whether 2 types of fine motor skills—fine motor object manipulation and fine motor writing—predict academic achievement above and beyond the effects of demographic characteristics and early language and cognition skills. Results indicate that performance on both fine motor writing and object manipulation tasks had significant effects on 2nd-grade reading and math achievement, as measured by grades and standardized test scores. Stronger effects were yielded for writing tasks compared to object manipulation tasks. Practice or Policy: Implications for researchers and early childhood practitioners are discussed.     

The Why of Learning

Alexander, Schallert, and Reynolds's (2009 Alexander, P. A., Schallert, D. L. and Reynolds, R. E. 2009. What is learning anyway? A topological perspective considered. Educational Psychologist, 44: 176–192. this issue[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]/this issue) what, where, who, and when framework situates different perspectives on learning in different places in this multidimensional space and by doing so helps us to better understand seemingly disparate approaches to learning. The framework is in need of a fifth, why dimension. The why dimension helps to place learning within an evolutionary and cultural perspective and to better understand students' motivation to learn and their preferences for what, where, and how to learn.     

The Influence of Music Distraction upon Reading Efficiency

ABSTRACT

The author examined the effectiveness of 2 fluency-oriented reading programs on improving reading fluency for an ethnically diverse sample of second-grade students. The first approach is Fluency-Oriented Reading Instruction (S. A. Stahl &; K. Heubach, 2005 Stahl, S. A. and Heubach, K. 2005. Fluency-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Literacy Research, 37: 25–60. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which incorporates the repeated reading of a grade-level text over the course of an academic week. This approach to reading is scaffolded by expert readers. The other approach is Wide-Reading Instruction (M. R. Kuhn, 2005 Kuhn, M. R. 2005. A comparative study of small group fluency instruction. Reading Psychology, 26: 127–146. [Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]), which also utilizes scaffolding by expert readers, but 3 different grade-level texts are read repeatedly each academic week. The results indicate that both Fluency-Oriented Reading Instruction and Wide-Reading Instruction are useful schemes for reading instruction with ethnically diverse second-grade students.     

Recruiting Prospective Students WithStories: How Personal Stories Influence the Process of Choosing aUniversity

The current study examined the use of narratives as persuasive recruitment tools for universities. This study analyzed students’ perceptions of four universities’ recruitment materials and used Fisher's (1984 Fisher, W. R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. Communication Monographs, 51, 1–22. doi:10.1080/03637758409390180[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) narrative paradigm and the concept of regulatory fitas a lens. Student participants perceived narratives as persuasive after they had narrowed down their list of colleges. The results also revealed that stories that represented both the academic and social sides of college helped students visualize themselves at the university and made the idea of higher education more tangible. Five themes are explained and the study concludes with theoretical and practical implications.     

A Technology Integration Education (TIE) Model for Millennial Preservice Teachers: Exploring the Canonical Correlation Relationships Among Attitudes,Subjective Norms,Perceived Behavioral Controls,Motivation, and Technological,Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) Competencies

Intellectual goods can follow the same pattern as physical goods with the product life cycle of birth, growth, maturity, and decline. For the intellectual good of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK), its birth began with Shulman (1986 Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 1987 Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was used to test the relationships among five of the 12 constructs in the technology integration education (TIE) model developed by Holland and Piper (2014 Holland, D. D., &; Piper, R. T. (2014). Technology integration education (TIE) model: Millennial preservice teachers' motivations about technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) competencies. Journal of Education Computing Research, 51(3), 257–294.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Based on the patterns of cross-loading correlations, this study found that there were limited correlational relationships between the set of independent variables and the set of dependent TPACK variables. For this pilot study, the sample consisted of 90 elementary education majors and 51 secondary education majors.     

Bullying May Be Fueled by the Desperate Need to Belong

Human beings have a fundamental need to belong, for ongoing positive interactions with others who provide companionship and caring (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Children may hit, exclude, or harass others electronically because when their own needs for belongingness are threatened, or when they want to enhance their own status, they lash out and hurt others in the way they think will be most painful, by engaging in behaviors that undermine the target's sense of belongingness. For reasons discussed herein, children and adolescents might be especially vulnerable to desperate needs for belongingness. Viewing bullying as motivated by the need to belong has profound implications for prevention and intervention programs to reduce bullying.     

In Defense of Clarity in the Study of Personal Epistemology

Andrew Elby (this issue) argues that researchers in the field of personal epistemology should beware insistence on a narrow definition of epistemology to guide this work. His argument is a response to suggestions (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997 Hofer, B. K. and Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning.. Review of Educational Research, 67(1): 88–140. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Sandoval, 2005 Sandoval, W. A. 2005. Understanding students' practical epistemologies and their influence on learning through inquiry.. Science Education, 89: 634–656. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that the study of personal epistemology should focus on people's views about knowledge and knowing and not conflate those with views about learning. His main concern is that learners' views about knowledge and their views about learning may, in fact, be conflated and that an insistence on definitional clarity could lead to a mischaracterization of cognitive structures. In this response I argue that clarity in the definition of theoretical constructs does not imply exclusion of views about learning from the study of personal epistemology. Furthermore, given the history of this area of research, failing to more clearly define our constructs makes real theoretical progress difficult.     

Fulfilling Their Dreams: Marginalized Urban Youths' Perspectives on a Culturally Sensitive Social and Emotional Learning Program

A growing body of research suggests educators need to focus on cultivating social and emotional competencies that youth will need to thrive in the new knowledge economy (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, &; Schellinger, 2011 Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., &; Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing student's social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). For marginalized urban youth, in particular, few have derived programs and interventions to assist with these competencies. This study illuminates the perspectives of 9 African American youth at risk for academic failure taking part in the Fulfill the Dream (FTD) program. FTD is a social and emotional learning curriculum emphasizing social justice and critical consciousness through the utilization of hip-hop culture. Information regarding the nature of the collaboration of this research project and recommendations for education professionals working with marginalized youth are discussed.     

Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research

This article revisits Paas and Van Merriënboer's (1993) Paas, F. and Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. 1993. The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors., 35: 737–743. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] measure of instructional efficiency, which can be applied by educational researchers to compare the effects of different instructional conditions on learning. This measure relied on performance and mental effort on the test, and as such gave an indication of the quality of learning outcomes. The acquisition of more (less) efficient cognitive schemata is indicated by combinations of high (low) performance and low (high) mental effort. This instructional efficiency measure has become widely adopted, but in an adapted form that incorporates mental effort invested in the learning phase instead of the test phase. This article demonstrates that the adaptation has important consequences for the construct of instructional efficiency and for the type of conclusions that can be drawn. Examples are given to illustrate the various implications of different combinations of mental effort and performance measures in the light of more contemporary developments in educational research.     

Involvement of working memory in mental multiplication in Chinese elementary students

The authors' aim was to examine the relation between two-digit mental multiplication and working memory. In Study 1, involving 30 fifth-grade students, we used digit span backward as an abbreviated measure of working memory. In Study 2, involving 41 fourth-grade students, working memory comprised measures of phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive (i.e., updating) based on A. Miyake et al. (2000 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &; Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). In Study 1, working memory measured through the use of digit span backward explained unique variance in response time. In Study 2, participants' accuracy and response time were most susceptible to phonological loop influence. The findings support the argument that multiplication facts are stored in a verbal form and the retrieval of multiplication facts relies more on verbal modality. Unique features of Chinese mathematics instruction of mental multiplication were discussed. The findings suggested that the involvement of different subcomponents of working memory in mental arithmetic may be subject to instructional, contextual, and linguistic factors.     

The Pooled Data Approach for the Estimation of Split-Ballot Multitrait–Multimethod Experiments

Saris, Satorra and Coenders (2004) proposed a new approach for estimating the quality of survey questions, which combines the advantages of the following two existing approaches: the multi-trait-multi-method (MTMM) approach and the split-ballot (SB) approach. In practice, this new approach led to frequent occurrences of non-convergence and improper solutions in the case of a two-group design (Revilla &; Saris, 2013 Revilla, M., &; Saris, W. E. (2013). The split-ballot multitrait-multimethod approach: Implementation and problems. Structural Equation Modeling, 20(1), 27–46.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). This was very problematic because this approach had been used in many experiments to determine the reliability, validity and method effects of questions that are used in the European Social Survey, which is used in approximately 30 countries. In this article, we propose a new estimation procedure, which we call estimation using pooled data (EUPD), to overcome the problems with this experimental design. We show that EUPD can also be applied in a general setting of structural equation modeling when the sample size is too small for precise estimation but several similar data sets are available.     

Memory Aging Knowledge and Memory Self-Appraisal in Younger and Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships among memory aging knowledge and memory self-appraisal in college students and community-dwelling older adults. Participants completed the Knowledge of Memory Aging Questionnaire ([KMAQ] Cherry, Brigman, Hawley, & Reese, 2003 Cherry , K. E. , Brigman , S. , Hawley , K. S. , & Reese , C. M. ( 2003 ). The knowledge of memory aging questionnaire: Effects of adding a ‘don't know’ response option . Educational Gerontology , 29 , 427 – 446 . doi: 10.1080/713844360 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and the Memory Functioning Questionnaire ([MFQ] Gilewski, Zelinski, & Schaie, 1990 Gilewski , M. J. , Zelinski , E. M. , & Schaie , K. ( 1990 ). The memory functioning questionnaire for assessment of memory complaints in adulthood and old age . Psychology and Aging , 5 , 482 – 490 . doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.5.4.482 [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We hypothesized that poorer performance on the KMAQ stereotype scale, suggesting an ageist response bias, would be associated with more negative self-appraisals of memory. Results confirmed that responses on the KMAQ stereotype scale were significantly associated with responses on the MFQ Frequency of Forgetting scale and two shorter scales derived from the full MFQ, the memory self-efficacy scale (Zelinski & Gilewski, 2004 Zelinski , E. M. , & Gilewski , M. J. ( 2004 ). A 10-item Rasch modeled memory self-efficacy scale . Aging & Mental Health , 8 , 293 – 306 . doi: 10.1080/13607860410001709665 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and a revised Seriousness of Forgetting scale after controlling for age and educational level. Implications of these findings for the development of instructional materials to improve memory aging knowledge and memory self-appraisal in adulthood are discussed.