Impairments in learning due to motivational conflict: situation really matters

Although many theories mention distractions by conflicting alternatives as a problem for self-regulation, motivational conflicts are rarely considered when explaining impairments in learning. In two studies, we investigate the assumption of motivational interference theory that students show different amounts of impairments in learning depending on the presence and motivational strength of conflicting alternatives. In Study 1 (N?=?221), the subjective value attributed to a respective alternative in a study–leisure conflict scenario partially accounted for differences in self-regulated learning while controlling for interindividual differences. Study 2 (N?=?112) demonstrated that this pattern applies to both when the respective alternatives refer to ‘liking to’ (want conflicts) and ‘having to’ (should conflicts) do something. Moreover, it is demonstrated that impairments due to motivational conflict are higher than impairments inherent in the studying activity itself (baseline). The results emphasise the importance of concurring action alternatives for explaining difficulties in self-regulated learning.     

Succeeding with High-Risk K–3 Populations Using Arts-Based Reading Instruction: A Longitudinal Study

ABSTRACT

Numerous studies have identified isolated elements for successfully teaching early reading. However, very few studies have examined the effect of early reading programs that use a combination of multiple research-based practices. A 4-year longitudinal study starting with 243 students was conducted to determine the effects of the Reading in Motion reading program on standardized measures of students’ reading skills. The program provided students from kindergarten through Grade 3 arts-based instruction in reading that teaches phonemic awareness, systematic phonics, and oral reading fluency using small groups and peer-assisted instruction with frequent, corrective feedback. Although the two groups were nearly identical upon entering kindergarten, the at-risk treatment students (N = 57) significantly outperformed control students (N = 48) at the end of kindergarten and Grades 1 and 2.     

Lessening the Load of Misconceptions: Design-Based Principles for Algebra Learning

The current study examined the effectiveness of self-explanation prompts, visual signaling cues, and a combination of the two features on middle school students’ (N = 202) algebra learning. Also explored were the differential effects of features for students with faulty conceptual knowledge (evidenced by a higher prevalence of making errors during problem solving) on learning. That is, we assessed whether students who make prevalent conceptual errors predictive of algebra performance differentially benefit from design features. Participants were randomly assigned to complete 1 of 4 sets of worked example assignments supplemented with self-explanation prompts (n = 51), visual signaling cues (n = 49), both features (n = 51), or neither feature (n = 51). Worked examples supplemented with either self-explanation prompts or signaling cues led to greater learning from pre- to posttest in comparison to the worked example control, with practically meaningful effects. The effect of assignments supplemented with signaling cues was moderated by error prevalence. Those who made errors more frequently demonstrating misunderstanding of algebraic concepts (e.g., the meaning of a coefficient) benefited significantly more from visual signaling cues alone than self-explanation prompts alone or control assignments. These findings highlight the importance of considering differential effects of design features when used in combination or in isolation, particularly for struggling students.     

Speaking to read: The effects of speech recognition technology on the reading and spelling performance of children with learning disabilities

In recent literature on persons with learning disabilities (LD), speech recognition has been discussed primarily as an assistive technology to help compensate for writing difficulties. However, prior research by the authors has suggested that in addition to helping persons to compensate for poor writing skills, speech recognition also may enhance reading and spelling; that is, what was designed as assistive technology appears to serve remedial functions as well. The present study was conducted to determine whether elementary and secondary students with LD who used the technology to write self-selected compositions and class assignments would demonstrate improvements in reading and spelling. Thirty-nine students with LD (ages 9 to 18) participated. Nineteen participants used speech recognition 50 minutes a week for sixteen weeks, and twenty students in a control group received general computer instruction. Results indicated that the speech recognition group showed significantly more improvement than the control group in word recognition (p<.0001), spelling (p<.002) and reading comprehension (p<.01). Pre- and posttests on five reading-related cognitive processing measures (phonological, orthographic, semantic processing, metacognitive reading strategies, and working memory) indicated that for the experimental group, only phonological processing improved significantly over the treatment period when compared to controls (p<.04). Further ANCOVA suggested that growth in phonological processing was associated with significant differences among conditions for all three academic measures: word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension. Address correspondence to 971 N. Altadena Drive, Pasadena, CA 91107. E-mail center@frostig.org.     

Training self-assessment and task-selection skills: A cognitive approach to improving self-regulated learning

For self-regulated learning to be effective, students need to be able to accurately assess their own performance on a learning task and use this assessment for the selection of a new learning task. Evidence suggests, however, that students have difficulties with accurate self-assessment and task selection, which may explain the poor learning outcomes often found with self-regulated learning. In experiment 1, the hypothesis was investigated and confirmed that observing a human model engaging in self-assessment, task selection, or both could be effective for secondary education students’ (N = 80) acquisition of self-assessment and task-selection skills. Experiment 2 investigated and confirmed the hypothesis that secondary education students’ (N = 90) acquisition of self-assessment and task-selection skills, either through examples or through practice, would enhance the effectiveness of self-regulated learning. It can be concluded that self-assessment and task-selection skills indeed play an important role in self-regulated learning and that training these skills can significantly increase the amount of knowledge students can gain from self-regulated learning in which they choose their own learning tasks.     

Integrating self-regulation in whole-class reciprocal teaching: A moderator–mediator analysis of incremental effects on fifth graders’ reading comprehension

In this classroom intervention study, reciprocal teaching (RT) of reading strategies was combined with explicit instruction in self-regulated learning (SRL) to promote the reading comprehension of fifth-grade students (N = 306). Twelve intact classes were randomly assigned either to an RT + SRL condition or to an RT condition without explicit instruction in self-regulation. Three additional classes served as a no-treatment comparison group. Strategies instruction was delivered by trained assistants in conventional German language lessons. Students practiced the application of these strategies in small groups. Both at posttest and at maintenance (8 weeks after the intervention), students in the two intervention conditions (RT and RT + SRL) outperformed comparison students in measures of reading comprehension, strategy-related task performance, and self-efficacy for reading. Relative to RT students, students in the RT + SRL condition were better able to maintain training-induced performance gains over the follow-up interval. A moderated mediation analysis revealed that this difference in the sustainability of the two treatments was (a) mediated by the successful mastery of the learned strategies and (b) most evident among students with poor reading fluency skills.     

Learning About Posterior Probability: Do Diagrams and Elaborative Interrogation Help?

To learn from a text, students must make meaningful connections among related ideas in that text. This study examined the effectiveness of two methods of improving connections—elaborative interrogation and diagrams—in written lessons about posterior probability. Undergraduate students (N = 198) read a lesson in one of three questioning conditions (read twice, embedded questioning, and elaborative interrogation) and one of three diagram conditions (text only, diagram without redundant text, and diagram with redundant text). Elaborative interrogation negatively affected learning from the lesson, relative to reading the lesson twice. One possible explanation for this finding is that the quality of answers to the elaborative interrogations was poor. When the lesson was read twice, diagrams helped learning from the lesson relative to text only. Implications of these findings for instruction in probabilistic reasoning are discussed.     

Value of the Geobased Information Systems to State Information and Education Departments

Abstract

The responses of 544 10th grade students to a questionnaire indicated that informal/nonformal science activities (discussions, watching TV, listening to the radio, reading, and other activities, such as visits to museums and field trips) were positively correlated with the following: the extent to which school science is conceived to be related to everyday life, attitudes toward science and science learning, parents' occupation, school environment, intentions for further study, and career aspirations. After-school discussion of what was learned in school was rated the most popular science activity, followed by watching TV, reading, engaging in science-related activities, and listening to the radio, respectively. Informal/nonformal science activities were found to be associated with a strong commitment to science and science learning.     

Epistemologies, conceptions of learning, and study practices in medicine and psychology

The subjects (N = 175), freshmen and fifth year students in psychology (n = 59) and medicine (n = 116), described their modes of studying by answering open-ended questions and Likert-type questions, presented to them within a task booklet. They were first asked to write down their own subjective definitions of learning. Scales to classify the answers were adopted from Lonka et al. (1990). Second, subjects were given a comprehension monitoring probe adopted from Ryan (1984). Responses were analysed to determine the specific comprehension criteria the student employed. Third, students rated a set of 71 statements concerning learning styles, regulation of learning, and conceptions of learning (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Vermunt & van Rijswijk, 1988). Embedded in the last set of statements were seven items that were used to classify students as dualists or relativists (Perry, 1968; Ryan, 1984).It was found that constructivist conceptions of learning were the most typical of (advanced) psychology students, whereas learning was more often seen as intake of knowledge by the medical students. Highest dualism scores were obtained by the first year students, especially medical students. In general, dualists were more likely to report knowledge comprehension criteria to test their understanding than were relativists, and dualists' conceptions of learning were also more passive. Four principal components were identified that reflected qualitatively different approaches to learning and knowledge: externally regulated and reproduction-directed learning (PC1), self-regulated, meaning-directed, and goal-oriented learning (PC2), constructivist epistemology (PC3), and active professional orientation (PC4). Medical students scored higher on variables related to PC1 and PC4, whereas psychology students scored higher on scales associated with PC2 and PC3.     

Erasing the Scarlet Letter: How Positive Media Messages About Sex Can Lead to Better Sexual Health Among College Men and Women

This study explores how positive media messages about sex can lead to better sexual health among young adults (college students at a large university, N = 228) by de-emphasizing sensation seeking, condom embarrassment, and stigma. Employing social learning theory and normative influence frameworks, the research found that college-age women had higher stigma (β =.22, t = 3.37, p <.001 for felt stigma) and lower sensation seeking (β = –.34, t = ?3.17, p <.01). Participants exposed to more media in some forms (e.g., news reading, β = –.131, t = ?1.94, p =.05) had less felt self-stigma. Thus, exposure to media, such as TV and media, and positive messages could encourage healthy sexual behavior in young women (around college age).     

Using strategy instruction and confidence judgments to improve metacognitive monitoring

Current models of self-regulated learning emphasize the pervasive need for metacognitive monitoring skills at all phases of the learning process (Winne and Hadwin in Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 227–304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998). In this investigation, we examined the impact of teaching 5th grade students how to self-monitor their comprehension and make confidence judgments. One treatment class (N = 21) engaged in process-oriented comprehension monitoring training while the other (N = 24) engaged in both comprehension monitoring training and response-oriented monitoring accuracy training. Findings revealed that students in both treatment classes improved their calibration accuracy and showed higher confidence on test performance than students in two comparison classes (N = 47, N = 26) after 2 weeks of instruction. However, students in the monitoring accuracy training class also showed significant gains in overconfidence in comparison to those in the other three classes. Implications for integrating comprehension-monitoring training at the elementary school level are discussed.

Academic procrastination and statistics anxiety

Statistics anxiety, which is experienced by as many as 80% of graduate students, has been found to debilitate performance in statistics and research methodology courses. As such, it is likely that statistics anxiety is, in part, responsible for many students delaying enrollment in these courses for as long as possible. Moreover, it is possible that, once enrolled in these courses, students with high levels of statistics anxiety tend to procrastinate on assignments. Thus, the purpose of this study was: (a) to examine the prevalence of procrastination among graduate students, and (b) to investigate the relationship between academic procrastination and six dimensions of statistics anxiety. Participants were 135 graduate students enrolled in three sections of a required introductory-level educational research course at a university in the southeastern part of the USA. Findings revealed that a high percentage of students reported problems with procrastination on writing term papers, studying for examinations, and completing weekly reading assignments. A canonical correlation analysis (R _c1 =.51) revealed that academic procrastination resulting from both fear of failure and task aversiveness was related significantly to worth of statistics, interpretation anxiety, test and class anxiety, computational self-concept, fear of asking for help, and fear of the statistics instructor. Implications for statistics anxiety reduction as a procrastination intervention are discussed.     

Examining the relations between reading fluency and reading comprehension for english language learners

This study examined the relations between reading fluency and comprehension among elementary school students (N = 171) in Grades 2, 3, and 5, all of whom were designated as English language learners (ELL) at some point in their educational careers. Although the overall relation between reading fluency and comprehension (r = .56) was consistent with previous research using non‐ELL student samples, results also revealed a substantial number of students (55.5%) who exhibited a significant gap (SD, 0.67 ) between their scores on reading fluency and comprehension assessments. In addition, the prevalence of students with fluency/comprehension gaps varied significantly across grade and English language proficiency levels. The results suggested that, although reading fluency and comprehension are significantly related for ELL students, practitioners should be cautious when making identification and instructional decisions for ELL students based solely on oral reading fluency data. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Investigation of Study Strategies that Maximize Learning for Underprepared Students

Abstract. Research has consistently found that college students, especially freshmen, are not independent learners. To help students become self-regulated learners, reading and study skills courses as well as academic assistance programs should be designed to address this concern. Students must develop an inventory of study strategies that can be selectively employed to meet the particular demands of the materials and assignments involved. The purpose of this study is to review several study strategies and to analyze which strategies correlated with test performance.     

Fostering the reading comprehension of secondary school students through peer-assisted learning: Effects on strategy knowledge, strategy use, and task performance

Based on the work of Fuchs and Fuchs [Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2001). Peer-assisted learning strategies in reading: Extensions for Kindergarten, first grade and high school. Remedial & Special Education, 22, 15–21], this study examined the effects of a peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) program on the reading comprehension of 7th-grade students. In a pretest–posttest (active) control group design, eight intact classes consisting of 186 students were assigned either to a PALS condition or to a traditional instruction condition (TI). In 17 lessons, students were instructed by their regular teachers in the understanding of age-appropriate reading material. Treatment success was assessed with both performance-related (reading comprehension) and strategy-related (declarative and procedural strategy knowledge) test tasks. At posttest, PALS students (a) scored higher on experimenter-constructed and standardized comprehension tests, (b) achieved higher scores on declarative and procedural measures of summarizing strategies, and (c) improved to a greater extent in their understanding of self-regulated reading activities than TI students.     

Labelling and self‐esteem: the impact of using specific vs. generic labels

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between being labelled either as having dyslexia or as having general special educational needs (SEN) and a child's self‐esteem. Seventy‐five children aged between 8 and 15 years categorised as having dyslexia (N = 26), as having general SEN (N = 26) or as having no learning difficulties (N = 23), completed an age‐appropriate version of the Culture‐Free Self‐Esteem Inventory and a standard test of reading ability. When the self‐esteem scores of the groups were compared (with the discrepancy between reading and chronological age being partialled out), it was found that the self‐esteem scores of those in the ‘general SEN’ group had significantly lower self‐esteem scores than those in both the ‘dyslexia’ group and the ‘control’ group. There was no significant difference between the self‐esteem scores of the ‘dyslexia’ and the ‘control’ group. On the basis of these findings, it is suggested that being labelled as having a general SEN may negatively affect children's self‐esteem because, unlike the label dyslexia, this label offers very little in the way of an explanation for the child's academic difficulties and because targeted interventions are not as available for those with a less specific label.     

Neuroanatomy Learning: Augmented Reality vs. Cross-Sections

Neuroanatomy education is a challenging field which could benefit from modern innovations, such as augmented reality (AR) applications. This study investigates the differences on test scores, cognitive load, and motivation after neuroanatomy learning using AR applications or using cross-sections of the brain. Prior to two practical assignments, a pretest (extended matching questions, double-choice questions and a test on cross-sectional anatomy) and a mental rotation test (MRT) were completed. Sex and MRT scores were used to stratify students over the two groups. The two practical assignments were designed to study (1) general brain anatomy and (2) subcortical structures. Subsequently, participants completed a posttest similar to the pretest and a motivational questionnaire. Finally, a focus group interview was conducted to appraise participants’ perceptions. Medical and biomedical students (n = 31); 19 males (61.3%) and 12 females (38.7%), mean age 19.2 ± 1.7 years participated in this experiment. Students who worked with cross-sections (n = 16) showed significantly more improvement on test scores than students who worked with GreyMapp-AR (P = 0.035) (n = 15). Further analysis showed that this difference was primarily caused by significant improvement on the cross-sectional questions. Students in the cross-section group, moreover, experienced a significantly higher germane (P = 0.009) and extraneous cognitive load (P = 0.016) than students in the GreyMapp-AR group. No significant differences were found in motivational scores. To conclude, this study suggests that AR applications can play a role in future anatomy education as an add-on educational tool, especially in learning three-dimensional relations of anatomical structures.     

The effect of relative age on achievement in middle school

To determine the relationship between relative age and achievement in middle school, standardized math and reading scores for a sample of middle-class, suburban middle school students (N = 933) were examined. Analysis of variance revealed a significant difference among relative age groups in only one area, sixth-grade reading, F(2, 146) = 3.1, p < .05. There was no main effect for gender and no interaction between age and gender in sixth, seventh, or eighth grade. When the birth month of students who had repeated one or more grades was examined, it was revealed that a large percentage of these students would have been the youngest in the class when beginning school. Results suggest that a relationship between relative age and achievement may exist in the lower grades but diminishes or disappears by seventh or eighth grade because of the retention of a larger proportion of the youngest children.     

‘It’s a bit of a generalisation,but …’: participant perspectives on intercultural group assessment in higher education

This paper reports on domestic and international students’ perceptions of the influence of group diversity on communication, learning, task performance and assessment grades. The study’s methodology involved quantitative and qualitative analysis of surveys (N?=?312), focus group interviews of students (n?=?26) and individual staff interviews (N?=?7). More domestic (79%) than international (29%) students stated that they preferred working with students from a similar background. While a proportion of the sample of domestic students stated that intercultural group work raised their awareness of interaction styles in other cultures, others noted that the group experience was negatively affected by issues related to language proficiency and awareness of academic requirements. Qualitative analysis reveals that ‘othering’, a process by which members of an in group (Us) distance themselves from an outgroup (Them), was often used as a basis for these students avoiding intercultural group assessment. Finally, there was a clear pattern overall of higher achieving international and domestic students perceiving that their grades for group assignments were below what they would normally receive for individual assignments, and lower achieving students perceiving that their grades were higher for group assignments.     

Integrating Skills and Wills Instruction in Self-Regulated Science Text Reading for Secondary Students

This study investigated the effectiveness of cognitive-metacognitive versus motivational components of the IMPROVE self-regulatory model, used while reading scientific texts, for 10th graders’ scientific literacy and self-regulated learning (SRL). Three treatment groups (N?=?198) received one type of self-addressable questions while reading scientific texts: cognitive-metacognitive (CogMet), motivational (Mot), or combined (CogMetMot). Control group received no self-addressed questions (noSRL). One measure assessed scientific literacy, and two measures assessed SRL: (a) as an aptitude—pre/post questionnaires assessing self-perceived SRL, and (b) as an event—audiotaping participants’ thinking-aloud SRL behaviors in real-time learning experiences and data coding illustrating SRL changes. Findings indicated that treatment groups significantly outperformed the non-treatment group. No differences emerged between CogMet and Mot, whereas fully combined SRL support (CogMetMot) was most effective. Theoretical and practical implications of this preliminary study are discussed.