Training psychology students to think critically: Revisiting psychology as science

Abstract

This article argues that South African psychology lecturers do not place sufficient emphasis in their teaching on critical thinking skills and on the application of these skills in the discipline of psychology. Students therefore often commit various errors in thinking such as hindsight bias, confirmation bias, the availability heuristic, the notion of “post hoc ergo propter hoc”, the idea that correlation equals causation, a reliance on an intuitive sense, reversed burden of proof, and over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence. Also, little emphasis is placed on scepticism, considering alternative explanations for phenomena, and demanding evidence for claims about human behaviour, creating conditions for unscientific and pseudoscientific beliefs to have credibility among psychology graduates. It is proposed that critical skills need to be taught in psychology courses, including rooting out gullibility and replacing it with skepticism, the principle of falsification, demanding evidence to support a claim, understanding the hierarchy of evidence, and engaging in probabilistic thinking.     

“There Is No Substitute for a Sense of Reality”: Humanizing the Humanities

Do the humanities have a future? In the face of an increased emphasis on the so‐called practical applicability of education, some educators worry that the presence of humanistic study in schools and universities is gravely threatened. In the short‐term, scholars have rallied to defend the humanities by demonstrating how they do, in fact, advance our practical interests. Martha Nussbaum, for example, argues that the humanities uniquely support democratic citizenship by cultivating critical thinking and narrative imagination — two skills needed for the development of sympathetic and autonomous judgment. Defending the humanities in this manner, however, puts practitioners of the humanities in an impossible position. In this essay, Megan Laverty explains that while arguments such as Nussbaum's, which defend the instrumental value of the humanities, are persuasive and strategic, their use is double‐edged. They belie the fact that the humanities are valuable for their own sake. Such arguments imply that the humanities derive their value from their ability to provide extrinsic benefits such as critical thinking and narrative imagination. Moreover, they can prevent individuals from discovering that the value of the humanities is revealed over time and from the inside out. In fact, having to answer the question of why the humanities matter puts us in an impossible position precisely because humanistic study is what Laverty describes, drawing upon the work of Talbot Brewer and R. F. Holland, as a form of dialectical activity: one in which the activity's constitutive ideals and internal goods are progressively clarified by means of the individual's ongoing engagement in the activity itself. Having redescribed the humanities as intrinsically valuable, Laverty goes on to distinguish humanistic study from other forms of dialectical activity, arguing that the humanities call upon students to imagine alternative linguistic and conceptual possibilities — thereby connecting us with others. It is in the pursuit of this question about the nature of our humanity — not its answer, but the question itself — that the meaning of humanistic study continues, indefinitely, to unfold.     

Comparative Effectiveness or Evidence-Based Medical Practice: “A Rose by Any Other Name…”

The goal of education and research in all disciplines is to develop critical thinking skills as a method for improving clinical decisionmaking. The emphasis on critical thinking is nothing new and can be traced back to ancient times when Socrates challenged his students to think about their knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors by interrogating them. It is widely known that Socrates would press his students until they could provide reasons and evidence to support their arguments and would dismiss those beliefs and decisions that could not be supported with evidence. Today, scientific critical analysis in medicine is termed evidence-based medical practice (EBMP), or comparative effective research.     

BELIEFS ABOUT CHEMISTRY TEACHING AND LEARNING—A COMPARISON OF TEACHERS’ AND STUDENT TEACHERS’ BELIEFS FROM JORDAN,TURKEY AND GERMANY

This paper discusses beliefs about teaching and learning chemistry. The sample includes chemistry student teachers and in-service teachers from Jordan, Turkey, and Germany. Two test instruments were used to investigate (student) teachers’ beliefs. A qualitative instrument was used to explore Beliefs about Classroom Organization, Beliefs about Teaching Objectives, and Epistemological Beliefs. A quantitative instrument was added to evaluate participants’ beliefs concerning the Nature of Good Education. The results show that Jordanian chemistry teachers and teacher trainees held the most traditional, teacher-centered, and transmission-oriented beliefs, while the German sample showed the most modern beliefs toward teaching and learning. Turkish (student) teachers evidenced more moderate beliefs, which tended to be between the two extremes, but that could still be positioned more closely to the traditional way of thinking. The results are discussed in the context of chemistry teacher education in the three respective countries.     

Exploring the Relationship Between High School Students’ Physics-Related Personal Epistemologies and Self-regulated Learning in Turkey

This article reports on an empirical exploration of the relations and strengths among Turkish grades 9–11 students’ (n = 209) personal epistemologies (justification of knowledge, certainty of knowledge, source of knowledge, development of knowledge), self-regulated learning (extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, rehearsal, elaboration, organization, critical thinking, metacognitive self-regulation), and achievement in physics (course grades). Established instruments were used to collect data on these students’ beliefs about knowledge and components of self-regulated learning (SRL) such as goal orientations (extrinsic and intrinsic motivation) and learning strategies, critical thinking, and metacognitive regulation. Results from structural equation modeling revealed that students’ personal epistemologies directly influenced their motivation (extrinsic and intrinsic goal orientations), rehearsal and organization strategies, and metacognitive self-regulation to learn physics. Furthermore, students’ personal epistemologies indirectly (mediated through motivation beliefs) influenced rehearsal, elaboration and organization strategies, critical thinking, and metacognitive self-regulation to learn physics. Students’ ideas about knowledge and knowing about the source and development of knowledge significantly contributed to students’ self-regulatory skills and physics course grade. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

试论思辨能力培养在高师院校英语专业课程设置中的意义和方法

近三十年来,思辨能力在国外有了很大的发展,并被西方教育界视为教育重点。一些重视教育的发达国家,如美国、英国等在该领域有比较成熟的理论体系。我国思辨能力发展的研究是近些年才开始的。高等师范院校英语专业是我国培养中小学英语教师的摇篮,英语教师的教学理念与学生英语思维的形成息息相关。本文简要分析了高师英语专业所面临的思辨缺席或欠缺的原因,并针对思辨缺席的现状,阐述了培养学生的思辨能力对高师院校英语专业课程设置的意义和方法。     

高职英语教学培养学生思辨能力的策略研究

目前高等职业技术院校英语教学严重缺乏对学生思辨能力的培养,文章从思辨能力的内涵出发,探讨在英语课堂中培养高职生思辨能力的意义,并结合教学实践提出培养其思辨能力的有效策略。     

Purposely Teaching for the Promotion of Higher-order Thinking Skills: A Case of Critical Thinking

This longitudinal case-study aimed at examining whether purposely teaching for the promotion of higher order thinking skills enhances students’ critical thinking (CT), within the framework of science education. Within a pre-, post-, and post–post experimental design, high school students, were divided into three research groups. The experimental group (n = 57) consisted of science students who were exposed to teaching strategies designed for enhancing higher order thinking skills. Two other groups: science (n = 41) and non-science majors (n = 79), were taught traditionally, and acted as control. By using critical thinking assessment instruments, we have found that the experimental group showed a statistically significant improvement on critical thinking skills components and disposition towards critical thinking subscales, such as truth-seeking, open-mindedness, self-confidence, and maturity, compared with the control groups. Our findings suggest that if teachers purposely and persistently practice higher order thinking strategies for example, dealing in class with real-world problems, encouraging open-ended class discussions, and fostering inquiry-oriented experiments, there is a good chance for a consequent development of critical thinking capabilities.     

Spatial thinking in science,technology, engineering,and mathematics: Elementary teachers' beliefs,perceptions, and self-efficacy

Fostering students' spatial thinking skills holds great promise for improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. Recent efforts have focused on the development of classroom interventions to build students' spatial skills, yet these interventions will be implemented by teachers, and their beliefs and perceptions about spatial thinking influence the effectiveness of such interventions. However, our understanding of elementary school teachers' beliefs and perceptions around spatial thinking and STEM is in its infancy. Thus, we created novel measures to survey elementary teachers' anxiety in solving spatial problems, beliefs in the importance of spatial thinking skills for students' academic success, and self-efficacy in cultivating students' spatial skills during science instruction. All measures exhibited high internal consistency and showed that elementary teachers experience low anxiety when solving spatial problems and feel strongly that their skills can improve with practice. Teachers were able to identify educational problems that rely on spatial problem-solving and believed that spatial skills are more important for older compared to younger students. Despite reporting high efficacy in their general teaching and science teaching, teachers reported significantly lower efficacy in their capacities to cultivate students' spatial skills during science instruction. Results were fairly consistent across teacher characteristics (e.g., years of experience and teaching role as generalist or specialist) with the exception that only years of teaching science was related to teachers' efficacy in cultivating students' spatial thinking skills during science instruction. Results are discussed within the broader context of teacher beliefs, self-efficacy, and implications for professional development research.     

Hirsch,Brett D (2012) Digital humanities pedagogy http://openbookpublishers.com/ isbn 978‐1‐909254‐25‐1 426 pp £14.95

This interesting book, the target audience of which is teachers of digital humanities at university level, highlights the need to teach methodological approaches and not simply technological skills. Thus we nurture scholars who are culturally literate as well as digitally adept, and foster the development of critical thinking skills. If the content of this book is likely to be relevant to you, I recommend that you buy a copy for your own use. Giuliana Dettori     

Demystifying Critical Reflection: Defining criteria for assessment

Many university teachers in the social sciences and humanities, especially those interested in emancipatory educative practices, wish to see their students develop a capacity for critical reflection, considered essential for the development of higher-order thinking. However, critical reflection is rarely precisely defined nor are clear indications given about how teachers can develop appropriate criteria for assessing how well students reflect. This paper offers a framework for identifying indicators of a capacity for critical reflection in the social sciences, as well as demonstrating how criteria can be developed for assessing students' capability for critical reflection, including making distinctions between reflection on values, beliefs and assumptions. It is argued that offering clear criteria can assist in providing guidance to both students and teachers in developing critically reflective capacities.     

More than heroes and villains: pre-service teacher beliefs about principals

New teachers enter schools with already established beliefs about principals.This paper reports on the nature and primary influences on what a group of Hong Kong pre-service teacher participants believe about principals. The nature of beliefs reflect underlying personal constructs that relate to interpersonal communication and management. Influences include past school principals, school leaders and parents. Beliefs were attained using a modified personal construct interview and analyses of participant stories. Findings highlight a close association between the leadership/management style of the principal whom participants would like to be and mothers, and the interpersonal behaviour of fathers and the principal whom participants would not like to be . The authors argue that reforms are needed in the course design of teacher education, teacher induction and programmes of professional development for principals. These reforms must address the influence personal history has on an individual's thinking about teaching, interpersonal communication and leadership - a reform process that begins with teacher educators and principals reframing their beliefs and associated practices.     

Write Now! Using reflective writing beyond the humanities and social sciences

Writing is an important teaching and learning tool that fosters active and critical thinking. There are multiple pressures for disciplines outside the humanities and social sciences to integrate writing in their courses. The shift from teaching solely discipline-specific skills to including writing in a meaningful way can be a daunting process. An instructor and education reference librarian at a public, four-year research university infused an urban planning course with reflective writing exercises. The collaboration proved effective in increasing students’ perceived writing abilities and active thinking via increased immediacy, frequency of writing and active learning.     

Establishing enabling conditions to develop critical thinking skills: a case of innovative curriculum design in Environmental Science

This paper considers a curriculum design motivated by a desire to explore more valid pedagogical approaches that foster critical thinking skills among students engaged in an Environmental Science course in South Africa, focussing specifically on the topic of Citizen Science. Fifty-three under graduate students were involved in the course, which was run over a two week period. Data were generated from several sources, including individual student evaluations, a focus group discussion, lecturer reflections and summative assessment results. During the course, the development of critical thinking skills was scaffolded by different thinking approaches to the possibilities and problematics of student-selected case studies, followed by a collaborative re-examining of ‘what is known’ about Citizen Science. Spiralling engagement with various resources harnessed the diversity of the class, as they drew on their personal and disciplinary backgrounds. The insights highlight possibilities for alternative higher education teaching models for emerging subjects such as Environmental Science, where the competencies required of graduates, such as critical thinking and coping with uncertainty, differ significantly from traditional ‘science’ competencies, and therefore require a departure from traditional teaching methods.     

“双一流”建设高校大学生批判性思维能力评价的实证研究

批判性思维培养对大学生的创新精神和创造力发展具有十分重要的作用,而对批判性思维能力的评价是培养过程中的一个重要环节。通过采用"加利福尼亚批判性思维倾向测量表"和"加利福尼亚批判性思维技能测试"对一所"双一流"建设高校不同年级学生进行批判性思维能力的调查评价,发现学生广泛具有良好甚至较强的批判性思维技能,但有超过26%的受调查学生不具备批判性思维倾向或气质。因此,建设"双一流"高校在培养大学生批判性思维能力,尤其是批判性思维倾向方面还有较大的提升空间。据此提出培养大学生批判性思维能力的策略和建议。     

Developing critical thinking skills in computer-aided extended reading classes

One of the skills that can be taught in an English proficiency class that adopts literary texts for teaching the language is critical thinking. The background, characters and their motives are among those that invite critical inquiry and interpretation. Although it has been claimed that discussing literary texts in the traditional way can help develop students’ critical thinking skills, it is yet to be proved whether the use of a teaching aid can help the process. This study is, therefore, carried out to see if the use of computer software can help to develop such skills. It specifically looks at the potential of a literary text, Othello, and a concordancer in developing and enhancing critical thinking abilities of 40 English as a Second Language (ESL) students at the International Islamic University Malaysia. An experimental study was carried out, where an experimental group was exposed to text analysis using a concordancer whilst the control group analysed the text manually. The Cornell Critical Thinking Test was used to analyse the critical thinking ability of the students. The experimental group outperformed the control group in all the subscales measured, but the percentage of variance in the scores was low.     

MCLB (Much Curriculum Left Behind): A U.S. Calamity in the Making

The relationships between high-stakes testing, curriculum, and the economic needs of our nation are explored. High-stakes testing has been found to narrow the curriculum by forcing more attention to be paid to reading, mathematics, and test preparation. Less time is available for the arts and humanities and for activities that could promote creativity and critical thinking—skills needed for national success in the 21st century. High-stakes testing may ultimately weaken our nation, not improve it.     

合作学习理论对英语专业学生口语思辨能力的影响

国内英语专业学生批判性思维能力较弱已经成了外语教育界的不争事实。大量研究都显示相比较其他非英语专业学生,英语专业学生更倾向于死记硬背,无条件接受教师讲授内容,缺乏独立思考能力。合作学习法(又称小组学习法)是在自主学习理论之上构建起来的,该学习理论能在一定程度上缓解外语类学生思辨能力弱的症状。本研究旨在说明该学习理论对学生思辨能力提高的影响力。通过口语测试、非结构化访谈等实证研究,研究者证实了合作学习能够提高英语专业学生思辨能力。     

The Use of Decision Cases to Foster Critical Thinking in Social Work Students

This article discusses the vital importance of developing critical thinking skills in social work students and explores the use of case-based instruction as a means of fostering those skills. The challenges inherent in the teaching and assessment of critical thinking are addressed. The history and theoretical underpinnings for the use of decision cases as a valid and efficacious teaching tool are presented. Literature evaluating the outcomes of the case method and related strategies is reviewed.     

学习性投入能带来批判性思维能力增值吗？ ——来自“2017全国本科生能力测评”的证据

采用倾向值匹配方法，以全国16个省78所院校5433名大四本科生能力测评数据为基础，探讨了学 习性投入对大学生批判性思维能力增值的影响。结果发现，总体上，学习性投入正向作用于批判性思维能力 增值；较之个体性学习投入，侧重交流、互动的社会性学习投入更有利于批判性思维能力增值；但是，并非所有 的社会性学习投入都显著作用于批判性思维能力增值，确切地说，大学生同龄群体间交流、互动性质的社会性 学习投入显著促进了批判性思维能力增值。深入分析后发现，学习性投入能否影响批判性思维能力增值的关 键在于它是否生成了论证性对话情境。深入、全面的论证性对话是批判性思维能力发展的核心动力。