Inclusion: developing an effective whole school approach

There is very little research that specifically looks at how autism spectrum disorders are perceived in various communities. This qualitative research was conducted with parents who had children on the autistic spectrum belonging to four different ethnic communities (White British, Somali, West African and South Asian – 63 in total) and living in the UK. The study found that the importance that the parents give to various social skills varied on the basis of their cultural background and the gender of the parent. This is an important aspect to consider while providing support and services to individuals on the autism spectrum and their family members if the services have to be appropriate for their needs. This consideration would also enable the individuals on the autism spectrum to develop appropriate social skills required within their cultural groups. This is a preliminary study and further research on the topic is required.     

Supporting Teachers’ Use of Technology in Science Instruction Through Professional Development: A Literature Review

Professional development is critical in supporting teachers’ use of technological tools in classrooms. This review of empirical research synthesizes the effective elements of professional development programs that support science teachers in learning about technology integration. Studies are examined that explore how professional development supports technology use within inquiry-based and traditional science instruction. Implications for future research are discussed in four areas: understanding and building on teachers’ beliefs about science and technology; supporting teacher learning by supporting teachers’ examination of students’ work; using technology to support teacher communities and social networks; and sustaining teachers’ learning beyond formal professional development programs.

Classroom Structuring Methods and Strategies for Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism experts and individuals with high-functioning autism contend that many individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) respond most favorably to information that is presented visually. Accordingly, strategies capitalizing on this visual preference have received significant recent attention in both ASD research and practitioner-related literature. This article provides a review of visually based strategies for organizing classrooms for children and youth with ASD. Classroom structuring methods, visual schedules, and visually based organizational strategies are described and discussed. For each of the above, a justification, a brief review of the research literature, implementation guidelines, recommendations for effective use, and suggested resources for practitioners are provided. Tables and figures that provide examples of methods are also provided.     

The use of visual schedules and work systems to increase the on‐task behaviour of students on the autism spectrum in mainstream classrooms

Apparent differences in executive function can lead to challenges for students on the autism spectrum in mainstream settings. Difficulties with staying on‐task and transitioning between tasks and task elements can interfere with students’ participation in educational activities and lead to stress and anxiety. While the use of visual supports, such as visual schedules and work systems, has been shown to be effective in supporting students to stay on‐task in special education and autism‐specific settings, there is little research to support the use of these strategies by teachers in mainstream classrooms. This study evaluated the use of visual schedules and work systems in supporting four students on the autism spectrum to stay on‐task and work independently in a mainstream setting. These strategies were implemented by teachers as inclusive practices, and evaluated using observations within the natural classroom environment to examine their feasibility in mainstream settings. All participants demonstrated improvements in on‐task behaviours. Results for other, secondary, dependent variables were mixed, with some students showing reduced off‐task behaviours and increased productivity. The implications for clinical practice and future research directions are discussed.     

Utilisation of an online forum to engage adolescents with autism in direct participation in qualitative research

Difficulties with social communication may present challenges in gathering data from individuals with autism in research. To encourage individuals with autism to participate directly in research, methods that allow for autistic symptomology should be considered. An online forum was developed to enable adolescents with autism to share their social experiences. Ten female adolescents with autism, aged 12 to 19, engaged with the forum over 12 weeks. Questions were posted weekly and data were collected on the frequency of participant responses, quality of responses, and participants' engagement with each other. Data indicated that the frequency and quality of participants' responses were high, and participants' engagement with each other facilitated the introduction of new topics. The online forum was an effective tool for adolescents with autism to have direct participation in research. It offers promise in future studies as a practical research tool that accommodates the social communication challenges of individuals with autism.     

Inclusive/exclusive? Contradictory perspectives on autism and inclusion: the case for an integrative position

This paper explores some of the tensions that frequently arise in debates about inclusion and the education of children and young people on the autism spectrum. This debate is often characterised by bipolar thinking and moral posturing, and is obscured by misunderstandings and omissions. This can create confusion for practitioners trying their best to support learners on the spectrum in inclusive classrooms, and does much harm to the inclusion project. This paper identifies some of the recurring entanglements that obfuscate the debate. The main thesis of the paper is that the effective inclusion of children and young people on the autism spectrum requires practitioners to question two dominant and contradictory perspectives within the inclusion literature – the rights‐based perspective and the needs‐based perspective – which, arguably, polarise thinking at the theoretical level and inclusive practice at classroom level. The specific aim of the paper is to identify oppositional views on labelling and special pedagogies within these two perspectives and critically explore their implications for teachers supporting learners on the autism spectrum. The possibility of an integrative inclusionist position is tentatively explored.     

Mapping experiences of pathological demand avoidance in Ireland

Pathological demand avoidance (PDA) is contended to be a distinct presentation within autism characterised by extreme levels of anxiety in response to the demands of everyday life, manifested in excessive levels of demand avoidance. This results in complex interactions with service providers in education and health settings, impacting on outcomes for individuals and their families. This national study sought to gather the viewpoints of individuals who experience PDA, families, and practitioners, with the intention of determining levels of knowledge, recognition and understanding of PDA; exploring current pathways to assessment and diagnosis; capturing experiences of access to education and healthcare services; identifying effective intervention and support strategies; and illuminating education and health outcomes for individuals and families. This mixed-method study collates survey responses from N = 264 parents, N = 9 life partners, N = 6 individuals experiencing PDA and N = 54 practitioners, and in-depth individual and focus group interviews from these cohorts. Findings suggest that a flexible, informed and individualised approach to assessment and service provision for individuals presenting with a PDA profile is essential. Practitioners universally referred to the necessity for a streamlined, integrated and multi-disciplinary approach. The reported disconnect between education and health systems indicates a need for access to services on an equitable basis.     

Quantifying social skill deficits and strengths profiles in autistic youth

While social difficulties in autism are well-established, questions remain regarding whether these represent challenges in acquiring or performing such skills, reduced social strengths, or a unique distribution across these domains (i.e., social profile). This study empirically derived social profiles of 211 autistic and non-autistic youth (M_age = 13.50; Autistic N = 150; Male N = 151; 85.3% White). Assessments occurred between 2016 and 2020. Results showed that autistic youth exhibit significantly more social acquisition and performance deficits and fewer strengths than nonautistic youth (ds = −.44 to .65). Performance deficits were most—and acquisition deficits least—prominent within autistic profiles, potentially implicating longstanding theoretical models of social difficulties in autism, and supporting new, idiographic approaches for conceptualizing, assessing, and treating social challenges.     

云南高新技术产业发展及其对竞争优势的培育

发展高新技术及其产业，是实现产业结构优化升级和经济增长发展战略的核心。高新技术产业除了需要一般产业发展的条件外，还需要一些特殊的创业环境和政策支持。云南高新技术产业包括生物制药、信息技术等产业，应针对高新产业发展的特殊条件，加强其竞争优势的培育，促进其健康、快速地发展。     

Early social communication development in infants with autism spectrum disorder

Social-communication differences are a robust and defining feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but identifying early points of divergence in infancy has been a challenge. The current study examines social communication in 9- to 12-month-old infants who develop ASD (N = 30; 23% female; 70% white) compared to typically developing (TD) infants (N = 94, 38% female; 88% white). Results demonstrate that infants later diagnosed with ASD were already exhibiting fewer social-communication skills using eye gaze, facial expression, gestures, and sounds at 9 months (effect size: 0.42–0.89). Moreover, three unique patterns of change across distinct social-communication skills were observed within the ASD group. This study documents that observable social-communication differences for infants with ASD are unfolding by 9 months, pointing to a critical window for targeted intervention.     

Educational transition outcomes of children and adolescents with clinically relevant emotional or behavioural disorders: results of a systematic review

Educational transitions are associated with significant changes. If students cannot overcome these challenges, their well‐being and motivation may be impaired. Students with clinically relevant emotional or behavioural disorders (EBDs) are at risk for negative transitional experiences. We conducted a systematic review summarising transitional outcomes of students with EBDs. After an electronic search in eight scientific databases, 4,930 publications were screened against six inclusion criteria. Two coders assessed the eligibility of 181 full‐texts. We included k = 22 studies published in English or German (1988–2017). Students with autism (k = 15) and transitions out of school (k = 13) were examined most frequently. Well‐being, achievements, social participation, support and expectations were observed. Poor well‐being and social difficulties were prevalent, but often adjusted over time. The results are limited by the inclusion criteria and search procedures. Nevertheless, the review closes a research gap and has implications for the implementation of interventions and a supportive transition environment for students with clinically relevant EBDs. Further research on individual changes and supportive approaches during transitions is needed.     

Use of superheroes social skills with middle school‐age students with autism spectrum disorder

The current study evaluated use of the Superheroes Social Skills program as a means of increasing social skill accuracy in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Participants included four Caucasian male students that were eligible for special education services within the autism category. Social skills training was presented twice weekly for 9 weeks. The results demonstrated that implementation of the intervention improved social skill accuracy within the training setting as indicated by visual analysis and nonoverlap of all pairs. Additionally, improvements in social skill accuracy during probes conducted within the classroom with typically developing peers was observed. Despite improvements in social skill accuracy in both settings, sociometric status of participants demonstrated little change from baseline to postintervention.     

Autism-Related Variation in Reciprocal Social Behavior: A Longitudinal Study

Deficits in reciprocal social behavior are a characterizing feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism-related variation in reciprocal social behavior (AVR) in the general population is continuously distributed and highly heritable—a function of additive genetic influences that overlap substantially with those which engender clinical autistic syndromes. This is the first long-term prospective study of the stability of AVR from childhood through early adulthood, conducted via serial ratings using the Social Responsiveness Scale, in a cohort-sequential study involving children with ASD, other psychiatric conditions, and their siblings (N = 602, ages = 2.5–29). AVR exhibits marked stability throughout childhood in individuals with and without ASD.     

Behavior change in a student with a dual diagnosis of deafness and pervasive developmental disorder: a case study

The broad term pervasive developmental disorder (PPD) describes a set of symptoms that occur along a continuum of severity; these symptoms are often referred to as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Little is known about the incidence and prevalence of ASDs among students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH). Teachers of DHH students, who must work with individuals with dual diagnoses, are at a loss for guidance from the literature. The authors review the literature on ASDs (also referred to as PDD) within the DHH population, provide results of a single-subject study to reduce PDD-type behaviors in a child with hearing loss, and argue that teachers of students who are DHH must learn about practices associated with applied behavior analysis as an tool for intervening therapeutically with children with dual diagnoses of hearing loss plus an ASD.     

Correlating Spatial Ability With Anatomy Assessment Performance: A Meta-Analysis

Interest in spatial ability has grown over the past few decades following the emergence of correlational evidence associating spatial aptitude with educational performance in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The research field at large and the anatomy education literature on this topic are mixed. In an attempt to generate consensus, a meta-analysis was performed to objectively summarize the effects of spatial ability on anatomy assessment performance across multiple studies and populations. Relevant studies published within the past 50 years (1969–2019) were retrieved from eight databases. Study eligibility screening was followed by a full-text review and data extraction. Use of the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) was required for study inclusion. Out of 2,450 screened records, 15 studies were meta-analyzed. Seventy-three percent of studies (11 of 15) were from the United States and Canada, and the majority (9 of 15) studied professional students. Across 15 studies and 1,245 participants, spatial ability was weakly associated with anatomy performance (r_pooled = 0.240; CI at 95% = 0.09, 0.38; P = 0.002). Performance on spatial and relationship-based assessments (i.e., practical assessments and drawing tasks) was correlated with spatial ability, while performance on assessments utilizing non-spatial multiple-choice items was not correlated with spatial ability. A significant sex difference was also observed, wherein males outperformed females on spatial ability tasks. Given the role of spatial reasoning in learning anatomy, educators are encouraged to consider curriculum delivery modifications and a comprehensive assessment strategy so as not to disadvantage individuals with low spatial ability.     

Inferring Mental States From Dynamic Faces in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Insights From Eye Tracking

There is mixed evidence concerning whether individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can infer mental states from the eyes. This study aims to elucidate whether they use less efficient strategies. Sixteen adolescents with ASD (11–16 year olds) were compared to a chronological age- and IQ-matched sample of 16 typically developing (TD) adolescents. Eight mental states were presented as full dynamic faces and in conditions altering the presence of expressive dynamic information from the eyes and mouth. Bayes factors revealed that adolescents with ASD had similar accuracy, response times (less conclusive), and fixations to TD adolescents. Findings imply that adolescents with ASD spontaneously fixate on the eyes, and not all individuals with ASD have difficulties inferring mental states from faces.     

A Review of Educational Approaches for Individuals with Autism

Autism spectrum disorder remains a heterogeneous and puzzling disability, and it is the subject of a wide variety of theories about its aetiology and treatment. This paper reviews recent research on educational approaches to the management of autism. Approaches include sensory-motor therapies, applied behaviour analysis, communication therapies, multi-treatment programs, and play and group therapy. Recommendations are made about the selection of appropriate educational approaches for individuals with autism.     

Developmental Trajectories in Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorders: The First 3 Years

Retrospective studies indicate 2 major classes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) onset: early and later, after a period of relatively healthy development. This prospective, longitudinal study examined social, language, and motor trajectories in 235 children with and without a sibling with autism, ages 6–36 months. Children were grouped as: ASD identified by 14 months, ASD identified after 14 months, and no ASD. Despite groups' initial similar developmental level at 6 months, ASD groups exhibited atypical trajectories thereafter. Impairment from 14 to 24 months was greater in the Early‐ASD than the Later‐ASD group, but comparable at 36 months. Developmental plateau and regression occurred in some children with ASD, regardless of timing of ASD diagnosis. Findings indicate a preclinical phase of varying duration for ASD.     

Sequential Associations Between Caregiver Talk and Child Play in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typical Development

This study examined sequential associations between child play and caregiver talk in 98 caregiver–child dyads (M_{mental age} = 14 months). Fifty dyads included a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Analyses revealed sequential associations between child play and caregiver follow‐in (FI) utterances (utterances related to the child's attentional focus) were stronger in the ASD as compared to the typically developing (TD) group. FI utterances were more likely to elicit functional play than caregiver‐focused utterances, and more so in the ASD group. Across groups, FI directives were more likely to elicit functional play than FI comments. These findings have important implications for research involving caregiver–child play as an early intervention context for children with ASD.