Investigating the influences of a LEAPS model on preservice teachers’ problem solving, metacognition, and motivation in an educational technology course

This paper discusses a qualitative study which examined students’ problem-solving, metacognition, and motivation in a learning environment designed for teaching educational technology to pre-service teachers. The researchers converted a linear and didactic learning environment into a new open learning environment by contextualizing domain-related concepts and skills and providing ill-structured, collaborative problem-solving opportunities. The intervention called Learning Environments Approaching Professional Situations (LEAPS) took into account issues surrounding motivation and situativity that are of particular interest to instructional developers and design-based researchers. In this study, four classes were assigned as either traditional or LEAPS environments from which four cases were selected for further examination. The results suggested that the LEAPS approach was beneficial in supporting students’ problem-solving, motivation, and self-reflections, but only under specific conditions. The implications for instructional design and motivation are discussed.     

Training metacognition in the classroom: the influence of incentives and feedback on exam predictions

In two semester-long studies, we examined whether college students could improve their ability to accurately predict their own exam performance across multiple exams. We tested whether providing concrete feedback and incentives (i.e., extra credit) for accuracy would improve predictions by improving students’ metacognition, or awareness of their own knowledge. Students’ predictions were almost always higher than the grade they earned and this was particularly true for low-performing students. Experiment 1 demonstrated that providing incentives but minimal feedback failed to show improvement in students’ metacognition or performance. However, Experiment 2 showed that when feedback was made more concrete, metacognition improved for low performing students although exam scores did not improve across exams, suggesting that feedback and incentives influenced metacognitive monitoring but not control.     

Investigating the Relationships Among Elementary School Students’ Epistemological Beliefs, Metacognition, and Constructivist Science Learning Environment

The research questions addressed in this study were: what types of epistemological beliefs do elementary students have; what types of metacognition do elementary students have; and what are the relationships among students’ perceived characteristics of constructivist learning environment, metacognition, and epistemological beliefs. A total of 626 students enrolled in sixth, seventh, and eight grades of nine elementary public schools located in Ankara, Turkey constituted the participants of this study. Constructivist learning environment survey (CLES), Junior metacognitive awareness inventory (Jr. MAI), and Schommer epistemological belief questionnaire (EB) were administered to students. Factor Analysis of Jr. MAI revealed both knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition items were loaded into one factor. Confirmatory factor analysis of EB revealed a four factor structure namely innate ability, quick learning, omniscient authority, and certain knowledge. Regression analyses revealed that metacognition and omniscient authority were significant predictors of personal relevance dimension of CLES. Metacognition was found as the only predictor of the student negotiation. Innate ability and metacognition significantly contributed to uncertainty. This study revealed that the elementary students with different mastery levels hold different epistemological beliefs and multi-faceted nature of elementary school students’ metacognition was seemed to be supported with this study. It was found that metacognition contributed to model more than epistemological beliefs for all three dimensions of CLES.     

Exploring the potential impact of reciprocal peer tutoring on higher education students’ metacognitive knowledge and regulation

It is widely recognized that metacognition is an important mediator for successful and high-level learning, especially in higher education. Nevertheless, a majority of higher education students possess insufficient metacognitive knowledge and regulation skills to self-regulate their learning adequately. This study explores the potential of reciprocal peer tutoring to promote both university students’ metacognitive knowledge and their metacognitive regulation skills. The study was conducted in a naturalistic higher education setting, involving 67 students tutoring each other during a complete semester. A multi-method pretest–posttest design was used combining a self-report questionnaire, assessing students’ metacognitive knowledge and their perceived metacognitive skilfulness, with the analysis of think-aloud protocols, revealing students’ actual use of metacognitive strategies. Results indicate no significant pretest to posttest differences in students’ metacognitive knowledge, nor in their perception of metacognitive skill use. In contrast, significant changes are observed in students’ actual metacognitive regulation. At posttest, students demonstrate significantly more frequent and more varied use of metacognitive regulation, especially during the orientation, monitoring, and evaluation phases. Furthermore, our findings point to an increase in more profound and higher-quality strategy use at posttest.     

What Can the Teacher Learn in the Classroom?

Our research is concerned with teacher’s knowledge, and especially with teacher’s processes of learning, in the classroom, from observing and interacting with students’ work. In the first part of the paper, we outline the theoretical framework of our study and distinguish it from some other perspectives. We argue for the importance of distinguishing a kind of teacher’s knowledge, which we call didactic knowledge. In this paper, we concentrate on a subcategory of this knowledge, namely observational didactic knowledge, which grows from teacher’s observation and reflection upon students’ mathematical activity in the classroom. In modeling the processes of evolution of this particular knowledge in teachers, we are inspired, among others, by some general aspects of the theory of didactic situations. In the second part of the paper, the model is applied in two case studies of teachers conducting ordinary lessons. In conclusion, we will discuss what seems to be taken into account by teachers as they observe students’ activity, and how in-service teacher training can play a role in modifying their knowledge about students’ ways of dealing with mathematical problems.     

Students’ experiences with contrasting learning environments: The added value of students’ perceptions

This study investigated the effects of two contrasting learning environments on students’ course experiences: a lecture-based setting to a student-activating teaching environment. In addition, the evaluative treatment involved five research conditions that went together with one of four assessment modes, namely, portfolio, case-based, peer assessment, and multiple-choice testing. Data (N = 608) were collected using the Course Experience Questionnaire. Results showed that the instructional intervention (i.e. lectures versus student-activating treatment) influenced students’ course experiences, but in the opposite direction to that expected. In declining order, the following scales (5 out of 7) revealed statistically significant differences: Clear Goals and Standards; the General scale; Appropriate Workload; Good Teaching; and Independence. Moreover, when the assessment mode was considered, also the Appropriate Assessment scale demonstrated significant differences between the five research conditions. Moreover, the same teaching/learning environments led to diverse students’ perceptions. While the perceptions of lecture-taught students were focused and concordantly positive, students’ course experiences with student-activating methods were widely varied and both extremely positive and negative opinions were present. Students’ arguments in favour of the activating setting were the variety of teaching methods, the challenging and active nature of the assignments and the joys of collaborative work in teams, whereas students expressed dissatisfaction with the perceived lack of learning gains, the associated time pressure and workloads, and the (exclusive) use of collaborative assignments and related group difficulties.     

Reconsidering conceptual change from a socio-cultural perspective: analyzing students’ meaning making in genetics in collaborative learning activities

In the learning sciences, students’ understanding of scientific concepts has often been approached in terms of conceptual change. These studies are grounded in a cognitive or a socio-cognitive approach to students’ understanding and imply a focus on the individuals’ mental representations of scientific concepts and ideas. We approach students’ conceptual change from a socio-cultural perspective as they make new meaning in genetics. Adhering to a socio-cultural perspective, we emphasize the discursive and interactional aspects of human learning and understanding. This perspective implies that the focus is on students’ meaning making processes in collaborative learning activities. In the study, we conduct an analysis of a group of students’ who interact while working to solve problems in genetics. In our analyses we emphasize four analytical aspects of the students’ meaning making: (a) the students’ use of resources in problematizing, (b) teacher interventions, (c) changes in interactional accomplishments, and (d) the institutional aspect of meaning making. Our findings suggest that students’ meaning making surrounding genetics concepts relates not only to an epistemic concern but also to an interactional and an institutional concern.

Metacognitive activity in the physics student laboratory: is increased metacognition necessarily better?

In this study natural-in-action metacognitive activity during the student laboratory in university physics is explored, with an aim towards quantifying the amount of metacognition used by the students. The study investigates whether quantifying natural-in-action metacognition is possible and valuable for examining teaching and learning in these contexts. Video recordings of student groups working during three types of introductory physics laboratories were transcribed and then coded using a coding scheme developed from related research on mathematical problem solving. This scheme identifies a group’s general behaviour and metacognitive activity. The study recognizes that reliably identifying metacognition is challenging, and steps are taken to improve reliability. Results suggest that a greater amount of metacognition does not appear to improve students’ success in the laboratory—what appears to matter is whether the metacognition causes students to change behaviour. This study indicates that it is important to consider the outcome of metacognition, not just the amount.

Inter-relations of tutor’s and peers’ scaffolding and decision-making discourse acts

This study investigates the mechanisms of scaffolding in a synchronous network-based environment – the ‘collaborative virtual workplace’. A theoretical ‘multi-actor’ scaffolding model was formulated. The study itself focused on the role and inter-relations of verbal scaffolding by tutor and peers during a collaborative process of making decisions about environmental issues. The analysis drew on data from the decision-making discussions of 31 groups – material that was saved automatically by the learning environment software. The age of the 62 students ranged from 14 to 17. Discourse act categories were devised to describe the tutor’s and the students’ task-related, supportive and social communicative acts. The scaffolding situation was characterized through a causal discourse act interaction approach. Tutor and students appeared to be elaborating and replacing each other’s process scaffolding acts in the collaborative decision-making situation. The influence of certain tutor’s and students’ inter-related scaffolding patterns on students’ decision-making provided empirical support for the ‘multi-actor’ scaffolding model. in final form: 12 May 2005     

Assessment of metacognitive skills by means of instruction to think aloud and reflect when prompted. Does the verbalisation method affect learning?

Recent research on metacognition points out the crucial role of on-line methods when endeavouring to conduct valid assessments of metacognitive skills. Presently, different on-line methods are used, however, it is still a question of research whether and how they affect students’ learning behaviour and learning outcome. Thus, the aim of this study is to quasi-experimentally analyse the effects of two on-line verbalisation methods on learning performance. By means of the thinking-aloud method, students in one experimental group (n = 24) were instructed to read and think aloud during learning. With the reflection when prompted method, students of another experimental group (n = 24) were prompted at each navigational step to reflect on the reasons why they chose specific information. Students in the control group (n = 22) learned without being instructed to verbalise. All three groups were treated identically except for the different use of verbalisation assessment methods. The students’ task was to learn the concepts and principles of operant conditioning presented in a hypermedium within 30 min. The students’ learning sessions were videotaped and learning performance was obtained immediately afterwards. Based on Ericsson and Simon’s (Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, MIT, Cambridge, 1993) model, no performance differences between the thinking aloud and the control group were hypothesised. However, prompting students for metacognitive reflection should affect learning performance positively, which is confirmed by the results only in tendency for transfer performance. Implications for on-line assessment methods of metacognitive skill will be discussed.     

Metacognitive factors in scientific problem-solving strategies

The aim of this study on 42 seventh graders (ages 12–13) was to determine whether and to what extent students’ metacognitive level is linked to their conceptualization and performance in problem solving at school, especially science problems. This hypothesis is supported by a number of studies showing that metacognition is a factor in learning. Two indexes were devised for the study: an index of metaknowledge about classroom learning, and an index of metacognitive monitoring in relation to task difficulty on a non-academic problem. These two indexes were related to the students’ intelligence test scores and solving strategies on electricity problems. The results showed that (1) the metaknowledge level was more closely tied to crystallized intelligence (Gc), and (2) metacognitive monitoring was more closely associated with fluid intelligence (Gf). Moreover, both metacognitive indexes were strongly linked to scientific problem-solving strategies (correlations around .50).     

Investigating Pre-service Science Teachers’ Developing Professional Knowledge Through the Lens of Differentiated Instruction

In this study, the author implemented a problem-based learning (PBL) experience that allowed students in an advanced science methodology course to explore differentiated instruction. Through working systematically in small, collaborative groups, students explored the nature of differentiated instruction. The objective of the study was to examine pre-service teachers’ developing conceptions of differentiated instruction (DI) as a way to teach for diversity. The author adopted action research as a strategy to explore students’ perceptions of DI in the context of science teaching and learning. Several data collection methods and sources were adopted in the study, including student-generated products, student interviews, classroom observation, and journal writing. Outcomes report on students’ perceptions of both the potential and challenges associated with adopting a DI approach to science teaching and learning.     

The relationship between task structure and collaborative group interactions in a synchronous peer interaction collaborative learning environment for a course of Physics

Although collaborative group work is used by many instructors as a useful educational tool, there is much room for research on how learning actually occurs within collaborative learning environments. This paper attempts to explore the relationship(if any) between task structure and collaborative group interactions in a synchronous peer interaction collaborative learning environment. For this reason, we used the Cmap during a Physics course for Grade 12 students. This paper compares two groups of students, one studying concept maps with single answer task, and the other studying concept maps with variable answer task. The aim of the study presented in this article is to also investigate the influence of task structure on students’ interactivity according to certain indicators and cognitive performance.     

Teaching Science Inquiry in Urban Contexts: The Role of Elementary Preservice Teachers’ Beliefs

This paper reports on a study of elementary preservice teachers’ inquiry-based practices, their efficacy beliefs, and the role beliefs had on two preservice teachers’ practices in urban classrooms. Results show inquiry-based practices can be cultivated through field-based experiences and preservice teachers’ efficacy beliefs, as it relates to practice in urban settings, are malleable. Specifically, personal efficacy beliefs about teaching science improved or were sustained for one cohort of preservice teachers. However, beliefs about students’ ability to learn science, that is outcome beliefs, were less stable. The results of two case studies show that science content knowledge was a factor in preservice teachers’ inquiry-based practices. However, why preservice teachers’ beliefs about student learning declined is less clear. More research is needed, along with follow-up data on teacher induction, to learn how preservice teachers’ beliefs impact urban students’ science education.     

Students’ likes and dislikes regarding student-activating and lecture-based educational settings: Consequences for students’ perceptions of the learning environment, student learning and performance

This paper aims to investigate students’ likes and dislikes of the teaching that they have experienced and its effects on students’ perceptions of the learning environment, student learning and academic performance. The study compares a lecture-based setting to a student-activating learning/teaching environment, considering both instructional and assessment practices. Data (N=578) were collected using the Course Experience Questionnaire (Ramsden, 1991) and by means of a standardised test. While lecture-taught students’ evaluations of the experienced teaching were generally focused and positive, students’ perceptions of the activating methods varied widely and both extremely positive and negative opinions were present. Also the consequences of these (dis)likes in instruction for student learning become clear. Moreover, a significant positive linear effect of students’ (dis)likes in instruction on students’ perceptions of the learning environment (except for appropriate assessment), their learning and their performance was found. This way, the results pinpoint the central role of teaching methods for students’ learning and caution against detrimental consequences of students’ negative appraisal of the teaching methods that they experience. A matching strategy between a student’s teaching tastes and the teacher’s instructional interventions provides the best educational prospects.     

Group work does not necessarily equal collaborative learning: evidence from observations and self-reports

Situative and sociocognitive analyses were combined to examine engagement in high-level collaborative learning and its relationship with individuals’ cognitions. Video footage of 53 science university students’ (nine groups) collaborative learning interactions as they worked through a case-based project was analysed in combination with students’ appraisals and reflections on the activity. Sizeable group differences in amount of high-level discussion of learning content were revealed. Individual high-level contributions were positively correlated with overall unit performance. Motivation at task onset predicted amount but not depth of content-related group discussion. Interviews with participants suggested that groups’ divergent patterns of engagement with content could be related to different perceptions of the notion of collaborative learning. Results are discussed in terms of implications for collaborative learning research and educational practice.     

Representational Issues in Students Learning About Evaporation

This study draws on recent research on the central role of representation in learning. While there has been considerable research on students’ understanding of evaporation, the representational issues entailed in this understanding have not been investigated in depth. The study explored students’ engagement with evaporation phenomena through various representational modes. The study indicates how a focus on representation can provide fresh insights into the conceptual task involved in learning science through an investigation of students’ responses to a structured classroom sequence and subsequent interviews over a year. A case study of one child’s learning demonstrates the way conceptual advances are integrally connected with the development of representational modes. The findings suggest that teacher-mediated negotiation of representational issues as students construct different modal accounts can support enriched learning by enabling both (a) richer conceptual understanding by students, and (b) enhanced teacher insights into students’ thinking.     

Using virtual microscopy to scaffold learning of pathology: a naturalistic experiment on the role of visual and conceptual cues

New representational technologies, such as virtual microscopy, create new affordances for medical education. In the article, a study on the following two issues is reported: (a) How does collaborative use of virtual microscopy shape students’ engagement with and learning from virtual slides of tissue specimen? (b) How do visual and conceptual cues scaffold students’ reasoning? Fifteen pairs of medical students participated in two sessions in which the students used a virtual microscope as a diagnostic tool in the context of learning pathology. The slides provided the students with varying levels of visual and conceptual cueing. The sessions were videotaped, and the students’ reasoning while using the microscope was analysed. The students’ written answers were analysed in terms of the findings they made and the diagnoses suggested. At a general level, the results show that students engage actively in this kind of virtually-mediated environment. The visual and/or conceptual cues improve students’ performance, and guide the students’ perception and reasoning in a manner that is productive from the point of view of learning to make clinically relevant observations. Scaffolding students’ reasoning process through cues furthermore assists the students in avoiding the most obvious pitfalls such as overlooking critical areas of a specimen. Overall, visual and conceptual cues improve students’ reasoning in perceptual and cognitive terms, while still allowing space for the making of “relevant mistakes” that may further the students’ diagnostic skills.     

Natural language as a tool for analyzing the proving process: the case of plane geometry proof

In the field of human cognition, language plays a special role that is connected directly to thinking and mental development (e.g., Vygotsky, 1938). Thanks to “verbal thought”, language allows humans to go beyond the limits of immediately perceived information, to form concepts and solve complex problems (Luria, 1975). So, it appears language can be studied as a cognitive process (Chomsky, 1975). In this investigation, I study language as a means for making the cognitive process explicit. In particular, I analyze the role of the verbalization produced by pairs of students solving a plane geometry problem. The basic idea of my research is that, during the resolution process of a plane geometry problem, natural language can play roles beyond that of communication: Natural language can be seen as a tool for supporting students’ cognitive processes (Robotti, 2008), and, at the same time, it can also be seen as a researchers’ tool which allows us to shed light on the evolution of students’ cognitive processes. With regard to language as researchers’ tool, I show how natural language (in our case, students’ verbalization during resolution of a plane geometry problem) can be used by the researcher to make explicit, to study, and to describe the development of the students’ cognitive processes during the resolution process. To this end, I present a model I have developed that allows us to identify, in students’ verbalization, different phases of their cognitive processes.