COUNSELLING FOR TOLERANCE

With the duties and responsibilities of the counsellor in mind and the pressures upon him or her, this article begins by considering the fine line between active tolerance, based on firm personal values, and passive tolerance, viewed by the author as more a form of valueless moral neutrality. Not only must the counsellors of today face clients with diverse cultural backgrounds as well as situations which challenge their own standards, they must also deal with the widely held belief that problems which appear not to be suitable for legal intervention should be solved by counselling. Understanding that the western notion of tolerance first developed in regard to ideas rather than actions, it becomes possible for counsellors to be compassionate while adhering to a conviction that some ideas are better than others and that certain actions must be avoided altogether. Generally speaking, there are two approaches to counselling: therapeutic or psychological, on one hand, and philosophical, on the other. The latter is best directed at the problems of ordinary people who need help with a problem such as personal loss, an overwhelming feeling of guilt because of an action one regrets, the fact that one will soon die ‐ as in the case of persons diagnosed for AIDS. Finally, the tolerant counsellor living in a diverse society can become a vehicle for imparting tolerance and understanding to others.     

TOLERANCE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Beginning with a brief discussion of the different meanings and contexts of tolerance, certain paradoxes of tolerance in regard to mental health in a clinical setting, in a socio‐legal setting, and at policy level are presented. Other paradoxes in the domain of mental health treatment are evoked: finding a balance between patemalism and neglect and between oppression and protection, and above all, the economics of tolerance. The author suggests that to help move understandings of tolerance away from association with passivity and neglect, such understandings should be linked to change, needs, and passion.     

COUNSELLING GIFTED CHILDREN

In Hungary counselling the gifted has grown out of our vocational guidance practice and is based on Us rich theoretical and methodological approaches. In principle our work fits in to the framework of Renzulli's model Since ECHA‐Hungary (1988) and the Hungarian Association for Gifted Children (1989) were founded, there has been strong pressure on the few experts to start a voluntary service mainly for parents. In the last two years 34 families have turned to us for help. In most cases the children's age ranged from five to eight years. Mostly the problems of this age group are presented here.     

THE NATURE OF COUNSELLING

The counsellor functions in a broad spectrum verging upon psychotherapy at one boundary and upon advice giving at the other and may also enrich the skills of others in the caring professions. In all cases, receptivity to the individual's thoughts and feelings is required. This capacity is enlarged by the counsellor's ability to extend his or her own self‐understanding and by willingness to learn from the client.     

COUNSELLING AT UNIVERSITIES IN HUNGARY

The article begins by reviewing the main problems facing young people in higher education and the kinds of problems with which they might need help. The approach is psychological and does not include problems of physical health or sociological, socio‐political, or strictly educational problems. For people looking at this age group from a distance, admission to a university or another type of institution of higher education can be seen as a process of arrival. One might think that the uncertainties and stresses from an earlier period of life would have ceased and the oppressive worries of adulthood not yet have begun. In reality, there are many possibilities for crises between the ages of eighteen and twenty‐five. It is one of the main tasks of the provision of psychological counselling in higher education to help adolescents resolve these problems.     

RELIGION AS THE BASIS FOR COUNSELLING

The efficiency and the success of counselling can be frustrated by the fact that far more clients than counsellors attach importance to and profess a belief in religion. Thus it is difficult if not impossible for the counsellor to work within the spiritual/religious framework of the client to achieve a satisfactory resolution of the problem which moved the client to seek counselling in the first place. Psychological theories of religion as well as interpretations of religious experiences are explored, an example being the use of the cosmology of the Toba Batak of Indonesia as a healing resource. The way the Toba Batak have responded to modernization and Christianization might offer certain lessons as to how modern Europeans and Americans might combine spiritualism and secularism in order to remain mentally and ethically healthy.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING IN MUSIC SCHOOLS IN POLAND

The development of psychological counselling for students of music schools in Poland is presented. The author's counselling experience has shown that crises in music school students can be analyzed in terms of values, technology and socio‐emotional factors. An important feature of psychological diagnosis is the analysis of musical achievement motivation (short, medium and longterm).     

DIFFERENCE AND DANGER: CULTURAL PROFILES OF NATIONS AND LIMITS TO TOLERANCE

In spite of internal differences, most nation‐states display a common mental programming of a majority of their inhabitants. This programming consists of shared symbols, heroes, and rituals that provide a national identity, and shared values that serve to stabilize the national society. Dominant values in nation states around the world have been classified according to four dimensions. One of these is Uncertainty Avoidance, which among other things stands for the degree of tolerance for whatever or whoever is different, for the strength of the feeling that what is different, is dangerous. The counselling process is affected by the mental programming of counsellor and client. Effective counselling of persons not sharing the same cultural profile demands special efforts, especially if the level of Uncertainty Avoidance for either or both parties is high.     

PARENTAL FEARS AND EXPECTATIONS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A COUNSELLING CENTRE FOR THE GIFTED

During the last five years the counselling centre in Hamburg has dealt with the identification, counselling and offering of special provision to gifted children aged from 5 to 17. More than 300 children and their parents have been individually interviewed, particular attention being paid to the childrens’ motivational, social, and emotional difficulties in school. Various counselling strategies have been adopted, while a number of concerns and expectancies of parents, according to the children's different IQ levels, have become apparent. Early identification and special provision for the gifted are of particular importance.     

PRINCIPAL ATTITUDES REGARDING ZERO TOLERANCE AND RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL SUSPENSIONS

Zero tolerance school discipline practices have been associated with a national increase in suspensions, a practice that has had a disproportionate negative impact on Black students. The present study investigated an association between principal attitudes toward zero tolerance and suspension rates for White and Black students in 306 Virginia high schools. Black suspension rates were more than double White suspension rates. Regression analyses controlling for student poverty and school enrollment showed that principal endorsement of zero tolerance was moderately associated with suspension rates for both White and Black students, but was not associated with the size of the racial disparity. Paired‐samples t tests showed statistically significant differences in the types of offenses that resulted in suspensions, with Black students significantly more likely to be suspended for disruptive offenses and White students more likely to be suspended for alcohol‐ and drug‐related offenses.     

A CASE FOR PROPHYLACTIC COUNSELLING WITH SCHOOL CHILDREN: AN EXAMINATION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES

Children leaving school for higher education face many stresses. It is suggested that teachers, parents and other counsellors can help prevent the worst effects of these. Previous research has indicated that girls are more likely to be stressed than boys. The present study suggests this finding may be unduly influenced by the presence of mature students for when mature students are not included girls are no more stressed than boys. It is suggested the two sexes should be treated equally and the labelling of girls as more stressed can be harmful. The main areas of potential stress were Internal needs and financial problems. Examination stress took a lower position than in other studies. It is suggested counselling should involve attitude change rather than Information giving.     

历史语境中的宽容（一）－－12世纪西欧教会法论异端和绝罚

中世纪西欧教会曾严厉镇压异端运动，同时又有一系列宽容的思想和举措。这是逻辑混乱或虚伪吗？教会法对异端分子的处理展现了基督教宽容在特定历史语境中的存在和运作，也说明这一宽容的渊源不是对真理的怀疑和冷漠，而是出自对神恩的信心、对他人良知的尊重。真理只能在历史进程中得以认知。而对宽容的评价也只能在特定的历史语境中进行。按照12世纪教会法学家格兰西的理解，处分异端分子的方式和举措典型地展示了正义和仁慈统合于爱，而爱就是关怀人类的拯救。不论是对罪犯处以绝罚还是鼓励他们与上帝和教会和解，相应的教会法规范都应该遵循，但是解释和应用法律必须考虑时间、地点、案件和当事人的特殊情形，据此减免刑罚或停止律法的施行。有时教会宽恕异端分子，期望他们能因此更快地纠正谬误。宽恕，不应该是神职人员渎职的借口；严格执法，也不应该蜕变成贪图和炫耀个人权威的机会。教会法对株连的批语尤其值得借鉴。教会法关于宽容的原则在律法的解释和施行中并未得到完全贯彻，迫害和滥用权威的现象时有发生，可知在寻求真理的同时又怀抱宽仁之心何其难也！     

石塔顶生朴树耐旱的形态及解剖学研究

应用光学显微镜观察两种不同生境下的朴树枝条和叶的某些形态及解剖结构。观察结果表明:干旱生境下的朴树与普通生境下的朴树相比,其同龄枝条短且细,节间短;叶片小而厚;角质层较厚,单位叶面积上气孔数目较多;栅栏组织较厚,叶脉则无明显差异。     

OPTIMUM DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE BY FLEXIPLEX TOLERANCE METHOD

The optimum design for flexible pavement structure is studied by using themethod of mathematical programming.The mathematical model is founded on the basisof“Design Code of Highway Flexible Pavement”issued by the Ministry of Communica-tions of China.The objective function is the cost of pavement structure.The optimal solu-tions of the mathematical model were searched successfully by flexiplex tolerance method.The relevant program has been developed on DPS-8 and IBM-PC computers.And thecalculated results show good convergence and accuracy for engineering applications.