The influence of cognitive reasoning level,cognitive restructuring ability,disembedding ability,working memory capacity,and prior knowledge on students' performance on balancing equations by inspection

Eighty-three (83) high school chemistry students were administered tests of cognitive reasoning level, cognitive restructuring ability, disembedding ability, working memory capacity, and prior knowledge before a learning segment on balancing chemical equations by inspection. After a four-day instructional segment utilizing direct teaching methodology, participants were given a posttest on balancing equations. Initial regression analysis indicated that a multicollinearity problem existed. Factor analysis and correlational data indicated that the reasoning, restructuring, and disembedding variables could be collapsed and redefined as a single restructuring variable. A hierarchial regression analysis was then performed, and the following conclusions were derived: (1) when prior knowledge alone is considered, students' understanding of chemical formulas significantly (p < 0.05) influences overall equation balancing performance; (2) when prior knowledge, restructuring, and working memory are considered, only restructuring ability significantly (p < 0.05) influences overall performance; (3) working memory capacity does not significantly (p < 0.05) influence overall performance but does on certain posttest items; (4) prior knowledge and restructuring ability also significantly (p < 0.05) influence performance on certain posttest items. Discussion includes the rationale for identifying the collapsed variable as restructuring and the absence of working memory capacity as a significant influence on overall performance.     

Predicting genetics achievement in nonmajors college biology

Students enrolled in a non-majors college biology course were pretested to determine their level of intellectual development, degree of field independence, mental capacity, amount of prior genetics knowledge, and amount of fluid intelligence. They were then taught a unit on Mendelian genetics. The only student variables found to not account for a significant amount of variance on a test of reading comprehension and/or a test of genetics achievement was amount of prior genetics knowledge. Developmental level was found to be the most consistent predictor of performance, suggesting that a lack of general hypothetico-deductive reasoning ability is a major factor limiting achievement among these students.     

Balancing chemical equations: The role of developmental level and mental capacity

Why are some students able to learn to use the trial and error method to balance chemical equations while others are not? To test the hypothesis that formal reasoning is required to balance even simple one-step equations, while formal reasoning and a sufficiently large mental capacity are required to balance more complex many-step equations, a sample of science students was tested to determine level of intellectual development, mental capacity, and degree of field dependence/field independence. Students were then given classroom instruction in using trial and error to balance equations. As predicted, a posttest revealed significant correlations between developmental level and equation balancing ability for both simple and complex equations. Also, as predicted, mental capacity correlated significantly with complex equations but not with simple equations. Field dependence/field independence played no significant role in performance. Educational implications are drawn.     

Reasoning strategies of students in solving chemistry problems as a function of developmental level,functional M‐capacity and disembedding ability

Achievement in science depends among other factors on hypothetico‐deductive reasoning ability, that is, developmental level of the students. Recent research indicates that the developmental level of students should be studied along with individual difference variables, such as Pascual‐Leone's M‐capacity (information processing) and Witkin's Cognitive Style (disembedding ability). The purpose of this study is to investigate reasoning strategies of students in solving chemistry problems as a function of developmental level, functional M‐capacity and disembedding ability. A sample of 109 freshman students were administered tests of formal operational reasoning, functional M‐capacity, disembedding ability and chemistry problems (limiting reagent, mole, gas laws). Results obtained show that students who scored higher on cognitive predictor variables not only have a better chance of solving chemistry problems, but also demonstrated greater understanding and used reasoning strategies indicative of explicit problem‐solving procedures based on the hypothetico‐deductive method, manipulation of essential information and sensitivity to misleading information. It was also observed that students who score higher on cognitive predictor variables tend to anticipate important aspects of the problem situation by constructing general figurative and operative models, leading to a greater understanding. Students scoring low on cognitive predictor variables tended to circumvent cognitively more demanding strategies and adopt others that helped them to overcome the constraints of formal reasoning, information processing and disembedding ability.     

Students' achievement in relation to reasoning ability,prior knowledge and gender

This study investigated students' achievement regarding photosynthesis and respiration in plants in relation to reasoning ability, prior knowledge and gender. A total of 117 eighth‐grade students participated in the study. Test of logical thinking and the two‐tier multiple choice tests were administered to determine students' reasoning ability and achievement, respectively. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to assess the effect of reasoning ability on students' achievement. The independent variable was the reasoning ability (low, medium, high), the dependent variable was the scores on the two‐tier test. Students' grades in science in previous year were used as a covariate. Analysis revealed a statistically significant mean difference between students at high and low formal levels with respect to achievement. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that reasoning ability, prior knowledge and gender were significant predictors of students' achievement in photosynthesis and respiration in plants, explaining 42% of the variance.     

Field dependence/independence cognitive style and problem posing: an investigation with sixth grade students

Field dependence/independence cognitive style was found to relate to general academic achievement and specific areas of mathematics; in the majority of studies, field-independent students were found to be superior to field-dependent students. The present study investigated the relationship between field dependence/independence cognitive style and problem-posing ability among sixth grade students. The 94 students’ sample was clustered into three groups, according to the cognitive-style field dependence/independence (field dependents, field mixed and field independents). The results suggest that field-independent participants outperformed field-mixed and field-dependent ones in both problem-posing ability and the complexity of the problems posed. It was also found that the content of the task influenced the differences between the three groups of students as regards the ability in problem posing and the complexity of the problems posed; while in the first (informal context), second and fourth task differences were found between the groups, in the third task (formal context), no differences were evident. The results are interpreted in consideration to the relevant literature findings. Some educational implications are discussed and directions for future research are drawn.     

The effects of hands-on and teacher demonstration laboratory methods on science achievement in relation to reasoning ability and prior knowledge

The present study compared the relative effects of hands-on and teacher demonstration laboratory methods on declarative knowledge (factual and conceptual) and procedural knowledge (problem-solving) achievement. Of particular interest were (a) whether these relationships vary as a function of reasoning ability and (b) whether prior knowledge and reasoning ability predict student achievement. Ninth-grade physical science students were randomly assigned to classes taught by either a hands-on or a teacher demonstration laboratory method. Students' reasoning ability and prior knowledge of science were assessed prior to the instruction. The two instructional methods resulted in equal declarative knowledge achievement. However, students in the hands-on laboratory class performed significantly better on the procedural knowledge test than did students in the teacher demonstration class. These results were unrelated to reasoning ability. Prior knowledge significantly predicted performance on the declarative knowledge test. Both reasoning ability and prior knowledge significantly predicted performance on the procedural knowledge test, with reasoning ability being the stronger predictor.     

What are the relative effects of reasoning ability and prior knowledge on biology achievement in expository and inquiry classes?

What factor(s) influence the likelihood a student will succeed in college biology? Some researchers have found the primary determinant to be the student's prior knowledge of biology, while others have found it to be reasoning ability. Perhaps the ability of these factors to predict achievement depends on the instructional method employed. Expository instruction focuses primarily on facts and concepts. Therefore, perhaps the best predictor of achievement in expository classes is domain-specific prior knowledge. Inquiry instruction focuses more on how science is done, i.e., on scientific processes; therefore, perhaps the best predictor in inquiry classes is reasoning ability. This study was designed to test these hypotheses. Students enrolled in a nonmajors community college biology course were pretested to determine reasoning ability and prior knowledge. The number of previous biology courses was also recorded as an indicator of prior knowledge. After a semester of either expository or inquiry (learning-cycle) instruction, students took a comprehensive final examination. Reasoning ability but not prior knowledge or number of previous biology courses accounted for a significant amount of variance in final examination score in both instructional methods and with semester examination and quiz scores in inquiry classes. This suggests that reasoning ability limits achievement more than prior knowledge among these biology students, whether they are enrolled in expository or inquiry classes. Reasoning ability explained more of the variance in final examination scores for students enrolled in expository classes (18.8%) than in inquiry classes (7.2%). The reason for this is not clear, but significant improvements in reasoning were found in the inquiry but not in the expository classes. These improvements were accompanied by significant differences in achievement in the inquiry classes. Perhaps the reasoning improvement facilitated the better and more equal achievement for students in the inquiry classes, thus reducing the correlation between initial reasoning ability and final achievement. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 35: 89-103, 1998.     

Predicting science achievement: The role of developmental level,disembedding ability,mental capacity,prior knowledge,and beliefs

Controversy in the literature exists concerning the relative importance of cognitive characteristics such as general developmental level and specific prior knowledge for science achievement. Thus the relative ability of developmental level and prior knowledge to predict achievement of concepts of evolution and natural selection was assessed by means by three commonly used types of examination items: multiple choice items, a computational item, and an essay item. The effects of students' disembedding ability, mental capacity, and belief in evolution were also assessed. Disembedding ability, prior knowledge, and belief in evolution were found to be significantly related to overall achievement, while developmental level and mental capacity were not. However, developmental level was found to be the best predictor of performance on the computational item while belief in evolution and prior knowledge were found to be the best predictors of performance on the multiple-choice items. Mental capacity was found to be a predictor of performance on the essay item. It is argued that the cognitive variables influence different aspects of science achievement. Implications are discussed.     

Aptitude treatment effects of laboratory grouping method for students of differing reasoning ability

This study examines aptitude treatment effects in an inquiry/learning cycle based physical science class for elementary education majors. The aptitude was formal reasoning ability and the students were arranged into three groups: high, middle, and low ability reasoners. The treatment was method of forming groups to work in the laboratory. Students in each of three classes were grouped according to reasoning ability. In one class the laboratory groups were homogeneous, i.e., students of similar reasoning ability were grouped together. In the second class the students were grouped heterogeneously, i.e., students of different reasoning ability were grouped together. In the third class, the student choice pattern, the students chose their own partners. The findings were that there were no aptitude treatment interaction for achievement or for gain in formal reasoning ability, that grouping students of similar cognitive ability together for laboratory work in the class was more effective in terms of science achievement than grouping students of differing cognitive ability together or than allowing students to choose their own partners, and that students at different levels of reasoning ability experienced differential gains in that ability over the semester.     

How Swedish pupils,aged 12‐15 years,understand light and its properties‡

The reasoning patterns used by a sample of Western Australian secondary school students aged 13‐16 were investigated with regard to the following reasoning modes: proportional reasoning, controlling variables, probabilistic reasoning, correlational reasoning, and combinatorial reasoning.

There was a wide range in students’ reasoning abilities at all year levels. Large percentages of students did not use formal operational reasoning patterns when they attempted to solve problems assessing their ability to use each of the five reasoning modes. Commonly used, but incorrect reasoning patterns were identified for each reasoning mode.

The students’ ability to use formal reasoning patterns was found to be an important factor in determining student achievement in lower secondary science, in their selection of year 11 science subjects, and their achievement in these subjects.

The results of the study indicate that it is important for teachers to be aware of the reasoning patterns of their students and the cognitive demands of course content, so that they can optimally match the content and their teaching strategies with the abilities of their students. Further research is needed to establish the nature of instruction which might best facilitate cognitive growth.     

Field Independence Associates with Mathematics and Science Performance in 5‐ to 10‐Year‐Olds after Accounting for Domain‐General Factors

Field independence describes the extent to which individuals are influenced by context when trying to identify embedded targets. It associates with cognitive functioning and is a predictor of academic achievement. However, little is known about the neural and cognitive underpinnings of field independence that lead to these associations. Here, we investigated behavioral associations between two measures of field independence (Children's Embedded Figures Test [CEFT] and Design Organization Test [DOT]) and performance on tests of mathematics (reasoning and written arithmetic) and science (reasoning and scientific inquiry) in 135 children aged 5–10 years. There were strong associations between field independence and mathematics and science, which were largely explained by individual differences in age, intelligence, and verbal working memory. However, regression analyses indicated that after controlling for these variables, the CEFT explained additional variance on the mathematical reasoning and science tests, whereas the DOT predicted unique variance on the written arithmetic test.     

Manipulation of M demand of chemistry problems and its effect on student performance: A neo-piagetian study

It has been shown that student performance in chemistry problems decreases as the M demand of the problem increases, thus emphasizing the role of information processing in problem solving. It was hypothesized that manipulation (increase or decrease) of the M demand of a problem can affect student performance. Increasing the M demand of a problem would affect more the performance of subjects with a limited functional M capacity. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of manipulation (increase) of the M demand of chemistry problems, having the same logical structure, on performance of students having different functional M capacity, cognitive style, and formal operational reasoning patterns. As predicted the performance of one group of students was lower after the manipulation (increase) in the M demand of the problem. This shows how even small changes in the amount of information required for processing can lead to working memory overload, as a consequence of a poor capacity for mobilization of M power.     

Educating Older Adults about Medicare: The Role of Cognitive Variables

ABSTRACT

A survey was conducted on 3,738 beneficiaries about their knowledge of the Medicare program as well as their reading habits, reading comprehension ability, and metamemory. Factor analysis yielded a reading and a metamemory factor. These factors explained variance in knowledge about Medicare above and beyond the variance explained by formal education. Individuals with good knowledge of memory processes, and those who reported high memory capacity and internal locus of control regarding their memory functioning, as well as frequent readers were more knowledgeable about Medicare. We suggest that cognitive variables be included in studies evaluating the effectiveness of educational materials for older adults.     

Self‐efficacy,reasoning ability,and achievement in college biology

This study compared the relationships of self‐efficacy and reasoning ability to achievement in introductory college biology. Based on the hypothesis that developing formal and postformal reasoning ability is a primary factor influencing self‐efficacy, a significant positive correlation was predicted between reasoning ability and degree of self‐efficacy to complete biological tasks. Further, reasoning ability was predicted to be more highly correlated with course achievement than self‐efficacy. The study involved pre‐ and posttesting 459 introductory biology students. Both self‐efficacy and reasoning ability increased during the semester. As predicted, self‐efficacy and reasoning ability were positively correlated. Depending on the nature of the achievement measure, reasoning ability accounted for some 15 to 30 times more variance in achievement than self‐efficacy. Also, as predicted, reasoning ability was a strong predictor of self‐efficacy, but self‐efficacy was not a strong predictor of reasoning ability. Self‐efficacy estimates and achievement were higher for the concrete tasks than for the formal tasks and higher for the formal tasks than for the postformal tasks. In general, students tended to overestimate their abilities to carry out the concrete, formal, and postformal tasks. Results support the study's working hypothesis that intellectual development continues for some students during the college years, that a postformal level of intellectual development exists, and that reasoning ability is a primary factor influencing both self‐efficacy and achievement. Student overestimation of their abilities may contribute to complacency, lack of effort, and to less than optimal achievement. Consequently, it may be advantageous early in the semester to provide students with particularly challenging tasks that “shock” them out of their complacency and perhaps increase their effort, their reasoning skills, and their achievement. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 706–724, 2007     

Manipulation of logical structure of chemistry problems and its effect on student performance

It has been shown previously that manipulation of the M demand (amount of information needed for processing) of chemistry problems affects student performance, which suggests that manipulation of logical structure of chemistry problems could also lead to significant changes in performance. The objective of this study is to investigate the following: Given the opportunity for training, what is the effect of increasing (manipulation) the complexity of logical structure of chemistry problems on student performance, and to what extent can cognitive variables explain changes in performance. Results obtained show that (a) even a small increase in the logical structure of a problem can change the role of cognitive variables (mental capacity and formal reasoning) to the extent that increase in logical complexity outweighs the advantage students may have gained through training on a similar problem; (b) the use of algorithms and training on particular types of chemistry problems could lead to a situation in which formal reasoning is the only cognitive variable that explains variance in performance significantly; and (c) after having solved very similar problems on two different occasions with improving performance, the improvement is not retained if the logical structure of a third problem increases considerably. It is concluded that when dealing with significant changes in logical complexity of chemistry problems, developmental level of students is the most consistent predictor of success. A model for the qualitative analysis of logical complexity of chemistry problems is presented.     

Neo-piagetian predictors of achievement in physical science

This article examines the predictive value of the cognitive variables of developmental level, mental capacity, cognitive style, short-term storage space, and numerical inductive reasoning for student achievement in college science. Achievement was analyzed for each of the categories of pure recall, computational, complex items, and total score of a midterm exam as well as for the composite score on a final exam. The sample for this study consisted of a class of 32 nonscience majors enrolled in Physical Science I at the University of Southern Mississippi. The results showed that developmental level was the single best predictor of achievement. Short-term storage space and mental capacity were significant predictors of achievement for computational and complex items, but, as expected from theoretical considerations, not for pure recall items. The degree of field dependence did not well predict performance on pure recall or computational items. The results also indicate that mental capacity and field dependence do not contribute significantly to the variance if developmental level is held constant. The pattern of the predictive power of numerical inductive reasoning parallels, in magnitude, that of mental capacity. The results of this study and its implications indicate that the construct of short-term storage space has great potential to guide classroom practice and the development of instructional materials. A strategy is outlined that would guide curriculum planners and classroom teachers in the development of materials which would allow students to develop complex problem-solving behaviors.     

The rate of acquisition of formal operational schemata in adolescence: A secondary analysis

A theoretical model of cognitive development is applied to the study of the acquisition of formal operational schemata by adolescents. The model predicts that the proportion of adolescents who have not yet acquired the ability to perform a a specific Piagetian-like task is an exponentially decreasing function of age. The model has been used to analyze the data of two large-scale studies performed in the United States and in Israel. The functional dependence upon age was found to be the same in both countries for tasks which are used to assess the following formal operations: proportional reasoning, probabilistic reasoning, correlations, and combinatorial analysis. Different functional dependence was found for tasks assessing conservation, control of variables, and prepositional logic. These results give support to the “unity” hypothesis of cognitive development, that is, the hypothesis that the various schemata of formal thought appear simultaneously.     

The interplay between cognitive and motivational variables in a problem-based learning environment

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student centered approach whereby students deal with ill-structured problems while working in small groups. In this study, a path model was utilized to model the relationships among reasoning ability, learning approach, prior knowledge, motivational variables, and achievement in genetics in PBL classes. 126 eighth grade students participated in the study. Results showed that reasoning ability, learning approach, task value, and prior knowledge had direct effects on achievement in genetics. Moreover, reasoning ability and task value were found to have indirect effects which were mediated by learning approach. Interrelationships found among the variables in the path model were discussed considering the characteristics of the PBL environments and suggestions were made for further research.     

Systematic modeling versus the learning cycle: Comparative effects on integrated science process skill achievement

This study assessed the effectiveness of the systematic modeling teaching strategy on integrated science process skills and formal reasoning ability. Urban middle school students received a three-month process skill intervention treatment from teachers trained in either the use of systematic modeling or the learning-cycle model. A third, control group received traditional science instruction. The analysis of data revealed that (a) students receiving modeled instruction demonstrated a significant difference in their achievement of process skills when compared to either of the control groups. (b) Students taught by teachers who had received special process skill and strategy training demonstrated a significant difference in their process skill achievement when compared with the control group. (c) Students at different cognitive reasoning levels demonstrated significantly different process skill ability.