Toward an Information-Processing Theory of Client Change in Counseling

A model of the cognitive structures and processes thought to compose the human information-processing system is presented. Possible difficulties in processing information are discussed because these may contribute to client problems and concerns. Recent work in applying understandings, from human information processing to an elucidation of client change in counseling, is reviewed. Information-processing models of client-centered and rational-emotive counseling are constructed that relate counseling skills and strategies employed in these approaches to hypothesized client cognitive changes. An integrated view of client cognitive change in counseling also is presented. Possible directions for research and theorizing in counseling and counselor education from the perspective of human information processing are mentioned briefly.     

A Review of the Empirical Basis for Counseling: Implications for Practice and Training

This article reviews the empirical literature in terms of three components of counseling including existing counselor and client factors, the counseling process, and the outcome of client change. The counseling process is based on the therapeutic relationship, general factors, and common techniques or interventions, as well as specific counseling approaches. The review supports the contention that there are common factors exhibited by skilled therapists that are empirically related to positive client change. Recommendations are made for the use of this information by counselor educators in training student counselors and designing training programs.     

The Stimulation Phase in Counseling

The evolution of a general model of counseling from Rogers through Carkhuff to Egan has resulted in a loss of emphasis on perceptual change and an increasing interest in social influence and action interventions. Greenberg and Kahn present an expanded model of counseling, which includes a stimulation phase. The addition of a stimulation phase in counseling is suggested to provide a place for active counseling methods that effect client perceptual change. This stimulation phase actively involves the counselor and client in full exploration, which culminates in discovery. Two processes are differentiated: discovery and dynamic self-understanding. Active stimulation leads to new awareness that can be enhanced by social influence to achieve new understanding.     

Brief Therapy at a University Counseling Center: Working Alliance,Readiness to Change,and Symptom Severity

The authors investigated whether students receiving short–term individual counseling at a university counseling center showed progress as evidenced by perceived client and counselor outcomes and the roles that client readiness to change and working alliance played in this setting. The results indicated that the counselor reports, not the client reports, reflected statistically significant change in client symptoms. Changes in symptom severity were not associated with working alliance and readiness to change.     

Cross-cultural or intercultural counseling or psychotherapy

Summary We have reviewed the problems in counseling or psychotherapy posed by cultural differences. Few if any solutions to these problems have been proposed. It has been the general conclusion that theories and methods of psychotherapy developed in Western culture are not applicable in other cultures.This view is rejected on the basis that there are universals of human nature, a basic one being the common motive of self-actualization. The goal of counseling or psychotherapy is to facilitate the development of self-actualization in clients. Cultures can be evaluated in terms of their contribution to the self-actualization of their members. The major conditions for the development of self-actualizing persons are known, and must be present in counseling or psychotherapy as practiced with any client, regardless of his culture. These conditions are not time-bound nor culture-bound. The problems of practicing counseling or psychotherapy in other cultures are viewed as problems of implementing these conditions. Certain characteristics of clients which present obstacles to the implementation of the conditions are associated with certain cultures. Until cultural changes lead to changes in these characteristics, counseling or psychotherapy will be difficult and in some cases impossible with certain clients from certain cultures. Structuring and client education and training may change client expectations and make therapy possible. In any case, however, to accede to client expectations, abandoning methods which have been demonstrated to be related to self-actualization as an outcome of counseling or psychotherapy, is to abandon self-actualization as the goal, and to accept goals which are often inconsistent with self-actualization.     

Counselor Comfort,Counseling Climate,and Client Satisfaction: Client Ratings and Academic Improvement

This study examined client perceptions of counselor comfort, counseling climate, and client satisfaction as measured by the CEI relative to counselors described as high-effective or low-effective in terms of changes in client academic performance before and after group counseling. The results indicated that the client's perception of the comfort of the counselor in a group setting is significantly related to counselor effectiveness as measured by GPA change. The overall counseling climate and the client's estimate of his satisfaction were found not to be related to counselor effectiveness.     

Incorporating Short Term Dynamic Psychotherapy Principles into Career Counseling: A Theoretical and Practical Approach

There is wide agreement among career counselors that there should not be a dichotomy between personal and career themes in career counseling. This article offers a Developmental Career Counseling (DCC) model that incorporates Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy (STDP) principles, specifically, James Mann's (1973) model, into a career counseling process. Common principles of STDP and their relation to principles of DCC are discussed: developmental life-span approach, limited time, importance of working alliance, rapid and early assessment, central focus, active and directive counselor participation, therapeutic flexibility, dealing with termination and specific criteria for client suitability to work in STDP and DCC. The model is illustrated through a DCC case of 8 sessions that focused on issues of self-esteem. The implementation of insights, techniques, and processes, borrowed from STDP and incorporated into career counseling, are demonstrated and implications for the practice of DCC are discussed.     

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIENT AGE AND COUNSELOR TRAINEES’ PERCEPTIONS OF PRESENTING PROBLEMS,THERAPEUTIC METHODS,AND PROGNOSES

Research has indicated that counselor perceptions of older adults may influence therapeutic methods. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between client age and counselors’ perceptions of presenting problems, severity of problems, prognoses, and use of therapeutic techniques. Recommendations for client‐counselor compatibility were also evaluated. Counselors were presented with introductory counseling situations that varied by age of client. Participants were then asked to complete questionnaires designed for the purposes of the study variables. Results indicated a significant relationship between the age of the client and the recommended age of the counselor. Other significant differences included therapeutic strategies employed and number of client problems identified. Implications for counselor education are discussed.     

College Counseling for Self‐Injurious Behavior: A Case Study

This case study describes the counseling experience of a college woman undergoing treatment to address self‐injurious behavior. The article presents and illustrates a counseling approach that is conceptually based on attachment and object relations theory. The approach emphasizes the client‐counselor relationship and the need to establish a supportive interpersonal environment as the main factors contributing to positive change in the client's self‐injuring behavior.     

Implications of Counselor Conceptualizations for Counselor Education

Conceptualizations of novice and experienced counselors are examined to determine how they view client problems and change in counseling.     

A Short-Term Dynamic Psychotherapy Approach for College Students

Abstract

This article explores the need for university counseling centers (UCCs) to implement brief therapies and describes one such treatment, intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy (ISTDP), as a particularly viable therapeutic approach in this setting. Because ISTDP is not appropriate for all students seeking therapy, a careful assessment of the client is conducted prior to deciding which treatment approach is best suited for the client. The different restructuring techniques that comprise ISTDP are discussed. The article ends with a brief vignette from a therapy session with a student involving ISTDP techniques.     

A Model of Client Impression Formation

A three-phase model of clients' impression formation in counseling and psychotherapy was articulated and put to initial empirical validation. The model describes the clients' impression-formation process, describes changes in client impressions as therapy progresses, and suggests the relevance of client impressions for therapy outcome. An attempt at empirical validation by using a clinical population lent some support to certain aspects of the proposed model.     

The relationship among counselor experience level, empathic accuracy, and counseling outcome in the early phase of counseling

The current study examined a mediating effect of empathic accuracy on the relationship between counselor experience level and counseling outcome. Data were collected from 48 counselor?Cclient dyads in real-life counseling settings. Empathic accuracy and counseling outcome were assessed by using client perceptions of the first three audiotaped counseling sessions. Ickes?? standard empathic accuracy assessment procedure was used with modifications to assess empathic accuracy. The procedure to assess empathic evaluation included three steps: (a) clients recognize and write down their thoughts and feelings while listening to the audiotapes, (b) counselors infer their client??s thoughts and feelings, (c) The third raters rate the statements of counselors?? empathic accuracy. Correlational analysis revealed that counselor experience level, empathic accuracy, and counseling outcome were positively related to one another. A path analysis was used to test the model that counselor experience level affects counseling outcome through the effect of empathic accuracy. Both paths from counselor experience level to empathic accuracy and from empathic accuracy to counseling outcome were significant, along with a significant mediating effect of empathic accuracy. These results show enhancing empathic accuracy is critical for counseling outcome. Limitations of the current study and suggestions for future research were discussed.     

Working alliance as a mediator and moderator between expectations for counseling success and counseling outcome among Korean clients

The study examined client’s perceptions of working alliance as a mediator and moderator between client expectations of counseling success and counseling outcome. Participants were 284 adult clients in counseling in university or community counseling centers or private practices in South Korea. Level of functioning at the start of counseling was used to control for counseling outcome. Results of structural equation modeling analyses indicated that working alliance fully mediated the relationship between client expectations of counseling success and counseling outcome. In addition, moderation of counseling expectations by working alliance on counseling outcome was supported. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Clinical Assessment at College Counseling Centers: The Consultant‐on‐Duty Model

The consultant‐on‐duty (COD) clinical consultation model maximizes efficient use of services, is distinct from other university counseling center (UCC) services, and precedes therapy. This model enables clinicians to ensure optimal fit between client need and type of UCC services provided, including brief therapy. The 4 objectives of the COD model include quick access to initial consultation, management of treatment expectations, collaborative treatment decisions, and planning for client assistance.     

The Coached Client as a Research and Training Resource in Counseling

Coached client methodology can be an important resource in the education of student counselors by simulating a counseling experience with a standard client stimulus before actual counseling is begun. The authors carried out the following procedures for establishing and maintaining standard client consistency: (a) development of a general concept of the content of the client's role; (b) incorporation of specific information about the coached client in a cumulative folder to be used by the counselor; (c) development of specific client statements as essential aspects of the client's role; (d) training the coached client to incorporate all essential statements into his role; (e) assessment of client consistency across interviews with different counselors. Research applications of coached client methodology were discussed as well as its use by schools in the hiring of counselors. Editor Abstract     

心理咨询中阻抗的表现形式与处理技巧

阻抗是心理咨询中的伴生现象,每个人都有因应世界的各种方式,拥有自己内在的平衡。咨询威胁了来访者的心理平衡,改变是他们最害怕发生的事情。本文试着从动力学的角度,阐述阻抗的表现形式与处理技巧,提出一个处理阻抗的操作化模型。     

A conceptual framework for job change

Change related to the job is identified as an exigent issue in the field of career development. This paper presents an effort to conceptualize a job change framework. The intent is increase awareness, generate discussion, and stimulate empirical research in this area.The conceptual framework for job change has been predicated on client concerns. The framework involves the unique relationship of several life factors which influence individual job change, and provides a means for systematic personal decision-making. A schematic diagram is also included as a tool that can be used for counseling and research applications.     

Disability and Counselor Education

Mainstreaming legislation is an impetus for social change in relation to treatment of individuals with disabilities. This change requires that counselor educators include content areas related to aspects of disability to prepare counselors to serve clients with disabilities. The author makes recommendations for curricular change for experiential and didactic training to increase a counselor trainee's sensitivity, skills, and knowledge regarding disability. Also, counselor educators are urged to team trainees from school and rehabilitation counseling training programs so that these professionals can work cooperatively for the benefit of the client with a disability.