Effects of test anxiety on performance,worry, and emotionality in naturally occurring exams

Test performance and reported anxiety levels of high and low test-anxious subjects taking either a regular exam or an exam containing brief, written relaxation instructions were compared. A consistent main effect for test anxiety was found; high test-anxious subjects performed more poorly and reported greater worry and emotionality than did low test-anxious subjects. Effects for the relaxation manipulation were found only on the second of three exams where the high anxious subjects receiving the relaxation exam format reported less worry than the high anxiety-regular exam group. Results provide greater external validity for the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS).     

Reducing test anxiety among school-aged adolescents: a field experiment

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of a multimodal and information technology (IT)-delivered intervention for test anxiety. Participants were randomly allocated to an intervention or waiting list group. Test anxiety was measured pre- and post-intervention and academic buoyancy, a construct that refers to students’ capacity to withstand academic challenge and pressure, as a covariate. In the intervention group, 13.7% of participants completed the full intervention programme comprising six sessions; 25.5% partially completed the programme (one or more sessions); and 60.8% of participants chose not to complete any sessions. Results showed that, after completing the intervention and when controlling for academic buoyancy, highly test anxious students showed a reduction in the worry and tension components of test anxiety, relative to those who did not complete the intervention. The findings suggest that the intervention may offer highly test anxious students a means of reducing their anxiety that does not rely on face-to-face delivery.     

Additive and multiplicative effects of working memory and test anxiety on mathematics performance in grade 3 students

The aim of this study was to investigate the interplay between test anxiety and working memory (WM) on mathematics performance in younger children. A sample of 624 grade 3 students completed a test battery consisting of a test anxiety scale, WM tasks and the Swedish national examination in mathematics for grade 3. The main effects of test anxiety and WM, and the two-way interaction between test anxiety and WM on mathematics performance, were modelled with structural equation modelling techniques. Additionally, the effects were also tested separately on tasks with high WM demands (mathematical problem-solving) versus low WM demands (basic arithmetic). As expected, WM positively predicted mathematics performance in all three models (overall mathematics performance, problem-solving tasks, and basic arithmetic). Test anxiety had a negative effect on problem-solving on the whole sample level but concerning basic arithmetic only students with lower WM were affected by the negative effects of test anxiety on performance. Thus, students with low WM are more vulnerable to the negative effects of test anxiety in low WM tasks like basic arithmetic. The results are discussed in relation to the early identification of test anxiety.     

Humor and anxiety: Effects on class test performance

Measures of trait anxiety, state anxiety, and achievement were obtained on a sample of undergraduate students, half of whom received additionaal humorous items in the achievement test. In a regression analysis, the trait anxiety × test version interaction was a significant predictor of achievement. Subsequent analyses revealed a disordinal interaction in which highly anxious students had lower achievement on the humorous test than on the nonhumorous test, and students with low anxiety had higher achievement on the humorous test than did students with high anxiety. The results do not support the popular assumption that humor is a positive factor in reducing high anxiety associated with academic evaluations.     

So young and already victims of stereotype threat: Socio-economic status and performance of 6 to 9 years old children on Raven’s progressive matrices

The aim of this study was to verify whether children from low socio-economic status (SES) are victims of stereotype threat. Children in first grade (6 to 7 years old) and third grade (8 to 9 years old) performed Raven’s progressive matrices, an intellectual ability test commonly used by psychologists. The test was presented either with the (evaluative) instructions recommended by Raven et al. (1998) or with non evaluative instructions. Children’s SES and beliefs concerning differences of abilities at school as a function of SES were also assessed. The results indicated that, as early as first grade, participants believed that children from high SES are better at school than children from low SES. Furthermore, low SES participants’ performance on the Raven’s matrices was lower in the evaluative condition than in the non evaluative condition. The experimental instructions did not affect high SES participants’ performance. The discussion explores implications of these results in the use of standardized tests to assess the intellectual abilities of low SES children.     

Test anxiety prevalence and gender differences in a sample of English secondary school students

The aim of this study was to estimate the proportion of students who report themselves as highly test anxious in a sample of English secondary schools and whether this proportion differed by gender. Self-report test anxiety data were collected from 2435 secondary school students in 11 schools. Results showed that 16.4% of the sample reported themselves to be highly test anxious, with the proportion significantly higher in female students (22.5%) than male students (10.3%). Moderate gender differences were present in the worry and tension components of test anxiety and small differences in the social derogation component. While not all highly test anxious students might be at risk of underperformance and disengagement from school and academic activities, there may still be a sizable group of students who would benefit from specific support and intervention.     

Test anxiety, perceived test difficulty, and test performance: temporal patterns of their effects

Two hypothesized models that represent relationships among test anxiety, perceived test difficulty, and test performance observed immediately before and after a final examination were tested. The structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized relationships by imposing the structure of direct and indirect effects on the current data collected from 208 undergraduate students. Students' perception of test difficulty had a significant effect on the arousal of both worry and emotionality. Temporal changes were observed in the degrees of these relationships; while test difficulty perceived before and during the exam both had effects on test anxiety perceived at each corresponding time, students' perception of test difficulty during the exam had a greater direct effect on the arousal of test anxiety than did test difficulty perceived before the exam. Worry, but not emotionality, had a strong inverse relationship with performance. That perceived test difficulty did not have a direct effect on test performance, but had an indirect effect mediated by worry, indicates that test performance was not directly influenced by how they perceive the test difficulty, but worry aroused by the difficulty perception influenced their performance. Importance of understanding students' perceived test difficulty was discussed for its effect on arousing worry anxiety.     

How accurate are teacher and parent judgements of lower secondary school children’s test anxiety?

This study examined teacher and mother judgement accuracy of children’s worries and emotionality in the school subjects of German and mathematics. The participants were 59 German language and 58 mathematics teachers, 572 mothers and their children at the end of Grade 6. The analyses for the total sample revealed weak-to-moderate correlations between adult’s and children’s perception of test anxiety. Moreover, we found that teachers overestimated children’s emotionality as well as children’s worry, whereas mothers underestimated children’s worry and overestimated children’s emotionality in both subjects. However, when looking at the highly test-anxious children, we found quite low correlations and an underestimation of children’s worry and emotionality in both school subjects. Thus, it seems important to provide teachers and parents with information about test anxiety and possibly training to improve their judgement accuracy because of moderating effects of test anxiety on achievement.     

Modeling effects on the intelligence test performance of test-anxious children

To evaluate the efficacy of modeling techniques for enhancing the performance of test-anxious children, 96 low-, middle-, and high-test-anxious children were assigned to one of three modeling conditions varying in degree of task structure and information provided about a testing session. Children either viewed a modeling film depicting an anxious peer overcoming test anxiety during a test session (Observation condition); viewed a similar film in which the examiner instructed the anxious child in coping techniques (Coping condition); or saw an unrelated film (Control condition). Contrary to expectations, no film nor anxiety effect nor any interactions were significant. Failure to replicate previous studies was attributed to control of examiner bias, superior statistical and experimental controls, and to differences in subject characteristics. The efficacy of modeling films in enhancing rapport during the test situation has not been conclusively demonstrated.     

Training in Place-Value Concepts Improves Children''s Addition Skills

The present study examined whether children's variation in arithmetic performance was related to differences in their understanding of place-value. Training in place-value concepts was provided to a group of Chinese children who were poor in arithmetic. Their performance before and after the training was compared to that of the children in two control groups. The results showed that there were reliable connections between place-value understanding and addition and subtraction skills. Furthermore, training in place-value concepts was found to be effective in enhancing the children's place-value understanding and addition skills. Implications for instructions in arithmetic were discussed.     

Gender-related worry and emotionality test anxiety for high-achieving students

Test anxiety among academically talented high school students (N = 103) was explored in this study. Two components of test anxiety were assessed: a cognitive component (worry) and a physiological component (emotionality). The results indicated that these students suffered from test anxiety, and that higher anxiety was related to lower science performance. Overall, females reported more test anxiety than did males. Whereas females experienced higher worry than emotionality, males reported little difference between the two anxiety components. Implications for college-bound students are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Early cognitive profiles predicting reading and arithmetic skills in grades 1 and 7

The aim of this study was to investigate cognitive profiles composed of skills predicting the overlap between reading and arithmetic in kindergarten (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, rapid automatized naming, and counting sequence knowledge) and the relation of these profiles to reading and arithmetic skills at Grades 1 and 7. A total of four distinct cognitive profiles were identified in an unselected sample of 1,710 children aged 5–6 years: (1) high linguistic and high counting skills (39.2%), (2) low linguistic and low counting skills (25.4%), (3) high counting skills in relation to linguistic skills (15.3%), and (4) low counting skills in relation to linguistic skills (20.1%). Among most of the children (about 65%), the linguistic and counting skills varied together. Children characterized by high or low overall performance levels across linguistic and counting skills also showed, predictably, high or low overall performance levels in subsequent reading and arithmetic skills in Grades 1 and 7. Children characterized by a discrepancy between linguistic and counting skills (about 35% of the children) in turn showed somewhat discrepant subsequent levels of reading and arithmetic skills. The results point towards individual variation (i.e., heterogeneity) in cognitive profiles that predict both reading and arithmetic skills in Grades 1 and 7. Based on these findings, the linguistic and basic number skills predict differently the overlap between reading and arithmetic in Grades 1 and 7 depending on cognitive profile. The weaknesses across linguistic and counting skills are a greater risk for persistent overlapping difficulties in reading and arithmetic than weaknesses in only one of the learning domains. For difficulties in arithmetic skill development, however, weaknesses in only counting skills present an equal risk compared to weaknesses evident across linguistic and counting skills.     

Profiles in self-regulated learning and their correlates for online and blended learning students

This study examines a person-centered approach to self-regulated learning among 606 University students (140 online, and 466 in blended learning mode). Latent profile analysis revealed five distinct profiles of self-regulated learning: minimal regulators, restrained regulators, calm self-reliant capable regulators, anxious capable collaborators, and super regulators. These profiles showed that: (1) differences in academic success are associated with a learner’s capacity for motivational regulation and self-regulated learning strategy implementation, (2) online learners are more likely to belong to profiles that are more adaptive, and less reliant on collaborations with others, (3) for learners at the lower end of the self-regulation spectrum, an increase in both motivational regulation and adoption of self-regulated learning strategies may be academically beneficial, and (4) high motivational regulation and strategy adoption can be all for naught, if the student is also highly anxious with worry and concern regarding performance.     

The successful test taker: exploring test-taking behavior profiles through cluster analysis

To be successful in a high-stakes testing situation is desirable for any test taker. It has been found that, beside content knowledge, test-taking behavior, such as risk-taking strategies, motivation, and test anxiety, is important for test performance. The purposes of the present study were to identify and group test takers with similar patterns of test-taking behavior and to explore how these groups differ in terms of background characteristics and test performance in a high-stakes achievement test context. A sample of the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test test takers (N = 1891) completed a questionnaire measuring their motivation, test anxiety, and risk-taking behavior during the test, as well as background characteristics. A two-step cluster analysis revealed three clusters of test takers with significantly different test-taking behavior profiles: a moderate (n = 741), a calm risk taker (n = 637), and a test anxious risk averse (n = 513) profile. Group difference analyses showed that the calm risk taker profile (i.e., a high degree of risk-taking together with relatively low levels of test anxiety and motivation during the test) was the most successful profile from a test performance perspective, while the test anxious risk averse profile (i.e., a low degree of risk-taking together with high levels of test anxiety and motivation) was the least successful. Informing prospective test takers about these insights can potentially lead to more valid interpretations and inferences based on the test scores.

     

An examination of the self-referent executive processing model of test anxiety: control,emotional regulation,self-handicapping,and examination performance

According to the self-referent executive processing (S-REF) model, test anxiety develops from interactions between three systems: executive self-regulation processes, self-beliefs, and maladaptive situational interactions. Studies have tended to examine one system at a time, often in conjunction with how test anxiety relates to achievement outcomes. The aim of this study was to enable a more thorough test of the S-REF model by examining one key construct from each of these systems simultaneously. These were control (a self-belief construct), emotional regulation through suppression and reappraisal (an executive process), and self-handicapping (a maladaptive situational interaction). Relations were examined from control, emotional regulation, and self-handicapping to cognitive test anxiety (worry), and subsequent examination performance on a high-stakes test. Data were collected from 273 participants in their final year of secondary education. A structural equation model showed that higher control was indirectly related to better examination performance through lower worry, higher reappraisal was indirectly related to worse examination performance through higher worry, and higher self-handicapping was related to worse examination performance through lower control and higher worry. These findings suggest that increasing control and reducing self-handicapping would be key foci for test anxiety interventions to incorporate.

     

“GAME” VERSUS “TEST” INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE WISC1

“Game” or “test” instructions on either verbal or nonverbal WISC scales were given to 160 third- and sixth-grade children. Ss in one condition were told they were going to take several tests, while Ss in the other condition were told they were going to play several games. Significant differences in performance due to task definition were found only on verbal tasks at the sixth-grade level with test instructions yielding superior performance. Results at the third-grade level failed to replicate previous results which suggested game instructions produce superior performance on nonverbal tasks.     

The role of perceived parental over-involvement in student test anxiety

The effects of perceived parental over-involvement on students’ level of test anxiety were examined in two studies. In study 1, parental over-involvement scale was developed. The sample comprised 105 male and female undergraduate college students between the ages of 21 and 26. The scale contained two aspects of parental over-involvement: parental attitudes toward academic studies and parental involvement in academic studies. Students’ self-reported attitudes toward academic studies were also included. In study 2, the effects of the three aspects on students’ level of test anxiety were examined. The sample comprised 90 male and female undergraduate college students, between the ages of 21 and 26. Research hypotheses were that the two aspects of parental over-involvement and students’ attitudes will positively correlate with students' test anxiety and that results will persist with high anxious students. Finally, an exploratory question was examined as to whether the two aspects of parental over-involvement will differ in their impact on test anxiety. As expected all three factors positively correlated with test anxiety; however, regression analysis indicated that only parental involvement was predicting text anxiety. Results for participants with high test anxiety partially supported research hypothesis as parental involvement correlated with test anxiety (TA) total score and with worry but not with emotionality. Findings are discussed as response to the exploratory question. Finally, although not hypothesized, academic education of parents was positively related to students' test anxiety. Results suggest that parental attitudes and behaviors are significant factors in college students’ TA.     

Deconstructing test anxiety

Recent changes to educational policy which have focused attention on the use of high stakes testing as performance and accountability measures have renewed interest in test anxiety both in the UK and the USA. The aim of this paper is to provide a critical examination of the test anxiety construct, and explore the ways in which test anxiety is written about and conceptualised in the existing literature. It is intended that this paper would provide a companion to the comprehensive reviews that already exist, to provoke scholarly thought and debate around the existing literature, than to provide an additional review. Discussion is based around five themes: (1) how test anxiety is differentiated from the anxiety construct in general; (2) the differing conceptions of test anxiety in the literature; (3) the relationship between test anxiety and other, related constructs; (4) how measurement concerns have driven development of the test anxiety construct; and (5) the focus on worry and performance deficits leading to definitional problems. Two directions for future work are highlighted: first, to continue the exploration of test anxiety with other related constructs; and second, to develop qualitative approaches to the study of test anxiety.     

Social Problems as a Basis for a Vitalized Arithmetic Curriculum

Ninety-six high-achieving fourth-graders performed a memory task before which either positive or negative expectancy statements were made by an adult and after which either positive or negative feedback statements were given. The resulting dissonant or consonant expectancy-feedback combinations were delivered over a four-day period. Results indicated that for high IQ children, performance was higher for those given discrepant rather than consonant combinations of expectancy-feedback statements. However, for low IQ children, performance was higher when given negative rather than positive feedback regardless of expectancy. The results are discussed in light of an uncertainty theory of motivation and arousal.     

学生考试焦虑研究综述

考试焦虑是我国学生常见的心理问题,它是个体面对考试情景,担心自己考试失败而形成的一种高度忧虑的负性情绪,对个体的生理和心理都会造成损害。众多研究显示,考试焦虑受个体的成就目标、自我效能感、学习考试技巧、个体认知以及家长和学校等因素的制约,认知行为疗法、放松疗法、系统脱敏疗法等方法可以有效地降低考试焦虑。