Saving Kuhn from the Sociologists of Science

For many in the science education community Kuhn is often closely identified with a sociological approach, as opposed to a philosophical approach, to matters raised in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. This paper is an attempt to liberate Kuhn from too close an association with the sociology of scientific knowledge. While Kuhn was interested in some sociological issues concerning science, e.g., how to individuate communities of scientists, many of his other interests were not sociological. In fact in later writings he was quite hostile to the claims of the Strong Programme. This difference in his post-Structure writings is explored, along with his model of weighted values as an account of theory choice. This model has little in common with the model of theory choice advocated by Strong Programmers and much more in common with traditional philosophical concerns about theory choice.     

Sex,Drugs, and Kinesiology: A Useful Partnership for Sport’s Most Pressing Issues

From the gender controversy of South African runner Caster Semenya to the doping practices of disgraced American cyclist Lance Armstrong, recent sporting issues highlight kinesiology’s important role and responsibility to sport. Increasingly, sport organizations, such as the International Olympic Committee, the World Anti-Doping Agency, and international federations, have turned to academics to help navigate their sport science issues. Such complex, cross-disciplinary problems require researchers versed in kinesiology’s sub-disciplines and familiar with problem-based inquiry. Though such cross-disciplinary practices are familiar to kinesiologists, their familiarity only indicates kinesiology’s potential impact on the major issues sport is currently addressing. Kinesiology must be a field comprised of scholars equally comfortable with empirical and humanistic research while at the same time applying their cross-disciplinary knowledge to some of sport’s most pressing issues. Kinesiology ought to consider more collaborative venues for scholars from across its sub-disciplines to work together on complex, cross-disciplinary research.     

Not Just a “Fleck” on the Epistemic Landscape: A Reappraisal of Ludwik Fleck’s Views of the Nature of Scientific Progress and Change in Relation to Contemporary Educational and Social Issues

In contrast to Thomas Kuhn, the work of Ludwik Fleck, a Polish-born physician, microbiologist, and epistemologist, is conspicuously absent from the science education literature. His originally obscure monograph first published in German in 1935, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, anticipates a number of views explicated by contemporary philosophers of science, cognitive psychologists, and learning theorists, and Fleck’s main thesis is, is many respects, strikingly similar to the oft-cited thesis developed later by Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Fleck’s work is perhaps the best example of the social influence on scientific commitment and thinking and is one of the first works to suggest different scales or varieties of change in science. At the same time as Fleck’s work gains recognition, momentum, and force in philosophical circles, some educators are calling for a critical appraisal of Kuhn’s impact on science education. This climate provides an ideal opportunity to assess (or perhaps in some cases reassess) the value of Fleck’s work in a science education context. The primary aim of this article, therefore, is to introduce educators in general, and science educators in particular, to the main ideas developed by Fleck in his Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. Throughout this article, Fleck’s ideas are compared and contrasted to those of Thomas Kuhn—arguably one of the most popular referents in nature of science studies over the past decade. As will be discussed, many of the ideas developed by Fleck anticipate central issues and perspectives in philosophy, epistemology, sociology, education, and cognitive psychology.     

The effects of audience pleasantness,audience familiarity,and speaking contexts on public speaking anxiety and willingness to speak

Two potential sources of anxiety about public speaking cited in previous research are audience pleasantness and audience familiarity. More familiar audiences, as well as more pleasant ones, usually evoke less anxiety, but research has shown some exceptions to this general rule. In addition, it is expected that as audiences become more pleasant and familiar, individuals would be more willing to speak. Ninety‐five university students each evaluated six situations, in which three levels of audience familiarity (strangers, acquaintances, and friends) were crossed with two levels of audience pleasantness (pleasant and unpleasant). Each student made their ratings with reference to one of three speaking contexts (academic, social, or professional). Using split‐plot ANOVA, a significant three way interaction was obtained for both willingness to speak and public speaking anxiety. In general, pleasantness exerted a stronger effect than familiarity. An audience composed of pleasant friends was the most preferred audience type in both the academic and social contexts. It is argued that previous research demonstrating conflicting effects of audience familiarity may have been generating different expectations for the anticipated pleasantness of the audience.     

Invoking Thomas Kuhn: What Citation Analysis Reveals about Science Education

This paper analyzes how Thomas Kuhn's writings are used by others, especially science education researchers. Previous research in citation analysis is used to frame questions related to who cites Kuhn, in what manner and why. Research questions first focus on the variety of disciplines invoking Kuhn and to what extent Structure of Scientific Revolutions (SSR) is cited. The Web of Science database provides material from 1982 for this analysis. The science education literature is analyzed using back issues from 1985 of the Journal of Research in Science Teaching and Science Education. An article analysis reveals trends in terms of what Kuhnian ideas are most frequently invoked. Results indicate a wide array of disciplines from beekeeping to law cite Kuhn – especially generic citations to SSR. The science education journal analysis reveals pervasive use of the term paradigm, although use is quite varied. The two areas of research in science education most impacted by Kuhn appear to be conceptual change theory and constructivist epistemologies. Additional uses of Kuhn are discussed. The degree to which Kuhn is invoked in ways supporting the theoretical framework of citation analysis, whether his work is misappropriated, and the impact of Kuhn are discussed.     

William Wales and the 1769 transit of Venus: puzzle solving and the determination of the astronomical unit

According to Thomas Kuhn, a significant part of “normal science” is the fact gathering, empirical work which is intended to illustrate an existing paradigm. Some of this effort focuses on the determination of physical constants such as the astronomical unit (AU). For Kuhn, normal science is also what prepares students for membership in a particular scientific community and is embodied in some form in our science textbooks. However, neither Kuhn nor the textbook says much about the individuals who practice normal science, especially those who had been relegated to the “hack” duties of long and arduous measurement and calculation. In this paper, to provide a context for students of astronomy, I will outline the story of the determination of the AU and in particular the contribution of William Wales, an obscure British astronomer. Wales, toiling in the shadow of Halley (of Halley’s comet fame), Mason and Dixon (of Mason and Dixon line fame) and the infamous Captain Cook endured a brutal winter in northern Canada for a brief glimpse of the 1769 transit of Venus. In the end, Wales supplied one small piece of the puzzle in the determination of the AU and he exemplified the human spirit and persistence of a Kuhnian “puzzle solver”.

科恩与库恩眼中不同的哥白尼

科恩与库恩都对哥白尼进行了研究,但对于是否存在哥白尼革命持相互对立的观点。这种对立在于两人对哥白尼革命的界定、评价标准以及两人对科学史分析方式和研究目标上的差异。科恩不承认哥白尼革命的存在,因为它不能通过历史的实证,库恩眼中的哥白尼革命则是他运用其历史主义科学观进行理性重构的结果。     

北朝天文学成就综述

北朝是少数民族为主体的政权,他们有重视天文历法的传统.北朝出现过不少天文学家,对天文仪器的制造、天象的观察和记录及历法的改革等都做出了重要贡献,其中尤为突出的要推“北魏铁仪”的制作与使用和张子信对太阳与行星视运动不均匀性的发现。     

Does the extent of problem familiarity influence students’ learning in problem-based learning?

This study investigated the relationship between problem familiarity and students’ learning in a problem-based course. Problem familiarity in this study refers to the extent to which a problem fits with students’ prior knowledge and experiences. As part of regular course work, 172 students were given two problems on different occasions. These problems varied in the extent of problem familiarity. Students’ report of their learning activities and tutor’s assessment of the students’ learning were collected at the end of the problems. Results showed that both the students and tutors found the familiar problem to be better for learning. However, some elements of unfamiliarity may not be all that bad. For instance, unfamiliarity may result in more questioning, thinking and reasoning. However, this did not contribute to significant difference in terms of overall critical reasoning. Results also indicated a need to closely examine students’ critical reasoning (in terms of evaluating multiple perspectives) and students’ collaborative learning (in terms of brainstorming and discussion) when given familiar/unfamiliar problems.     

Social contexts of learning literate language: The role of varied, familiar, and close peer relationships

Two prominent theories in evolutionary biology have stressed the role of social contexts in the evolution of primate cognition. One theory holds that cognition evolved in the context of individuals having to keep track of their interactions with a variety of conspecifics. In the other theory, cognition evolved in the contexts of familiar and close social relationships. In this paper, we present two experiments examining the effects of varied, familiar, and close social contacts on preschool children's literate language and story re-reading. We hypothesized, based on developmental evolutionary theory, that closeness, in the form of increased familiarity and friendship, would maximize children's expression of emotional terms, conflict/resolution cycles, collaborative responses, literate language, and story re-readings. In Study 1, children were exposed to one of two conditions. In the more familiar condition, initially unfamiliar children interacted with the same peer across four separate observations. In the less familiar, varied condition, a focal child interacted with a different unfamiliar peer on four separate occasions. Consistent with predictions, children in the more familiar condition increased their use of emotional terms and literate language and story re-reading with time. In Study 2, a familiar group (as defined in Study 1) was compared with children in bestfriend dyads. As predicted, friends outperformed familiar peers initially, but between-group differences decreased across time while children's performance in the familiar group increased across time. Results are discussed in terms of the role of familiarity in the evolution of cooperation and cognition.     

Knowing and Learning about Science in Primary School ‘Communities of Science Practice’: The Views of Participating Scientists in the MyScience Initiative

MyScience is a primary science education initiative in which being in a community of practice is integral to the learning process. One component of this initiative involves professional scientists interacting with primary school communities which are navigating their way towards sustainable ‘communities of practice’ around the ‘domain’ of ‘investigating scientifically’. This paper describes the ongoing journey to date of eleven scientists (six astronomers and five engineers) who actively participated in MyScience over an extended period. Their views of interactions with teachers and students were analysed using attributes associated with both ‘communities of practice’ and the ‘nature of science’. Findings reveal new understandings about the evolving characteristics associated with the development of such school-community collaborations as well as affordances and barriers that may influence their further growth. The influence of these scientists’ own ‘community of science practices’ may account for some of the findings. Implications for science teaching and learning in primary school community of practice settings are discussed.     

论科学划界的标准

在科学划界问题上,库恩用科学史的实例使人们认识到逻辑主义的科学划界的绝对标准之谬误;主张一个研究领域出现了范式是这个领域成为科学的充要条件,开创了历史主义的相对标准观。把这种相对主义推向极致,就导致费耶阿本德、劳丹、罗蒂等人的反对科学划界的标准消解观。相对标准观不能把占星术等从科学中排除出去,消解观和拉卡托斯的科学研究纲领方法论都让伪科学有生存的借口。之后的多元标准观越来越复杂,但未能给出令人满意的科学划界。本文把可证伪性、实质普遍性、一致性和超余内容性等巧妙地结合在一起,给出了一个规范性的对科学的定义。这个划界标准既是逻辑的、又是历史的,能够排除形而上学和伪科学,也能得出人们以为科学通常都具有的各种特性。     

The development of a group test of formal operational logic in the content area of environmental science

An instrument was developed to assess the logical reasoning capacity of adolescents in the content area of environmental science. Characterized as a group test, the instrument consisted of five concrete experiences related to environmental concepts, to which pencil-and-paper responses were made. The instrument was validated through (1) logical analysis of items from the standpoint of Piagetian theory, (2) correlation with clinical interviews and group test results in physical science, and (3) factor analysis. The results indicated an acceptable level of validity for the instrument in each category. Concurrently, the results of the study indicated that the reasoning level of the subjects was well below the theoretical levels predicted for them by theory. The results also suggested that reasoning ability in environmental science was lower than in areas associated with the physical concepts usually tested. The data suggested the presence of a horizontal decalage, or time lag, between the development of logical reasoning skills in areas of familiarity, such as physical science, and areas of content less familiar to the subject or those in which logical structures may be less frequently used in the development of evaluation instruments.     

Radiation: The key to understanding the universe

The only source of information about the universe is the radiation that we receive from various astronomical sources. This article describes some of the methods used by astronomers to analyze this radiation to unveil the mysteries of the universe.     

论托马斯·库恩的科学发展模式

托马斯·库恩是美国著名的科学哲学家和科学史家,他提出的科学发展模式,一方面强调了常规科学和科学革命的不断交替的过程,另一方面又突出了新旧范式的更替依靠科学共同体对新范式的信念或信仰。这种动态发展模式是对卡尔·波普尔的一大推进。全方位研究库恩的范式及其科学发展模式,可以为我们从事科学研究和科学管理提供方法论指导。     

Engaging Girls’ Sociohistorical Identities in Science

What does it mean for ethnic minority girls, who have historically been marginalized by schools, to “see themselves” in science? Schools fail to create spaces for students to engage their identity resources in the learning of science or to negotiate and enact new science-related identities. This study investigates relationships among identity, engagement, and science discourse and provides a conceptual argument for how and why underserved ethnic minority girls engage in collective identity work, with science learning as a valued byproduct. The primary context for the study was Lunchtime Science, a 4-week lunchtime intervention for girls failing their science courses. There were 4 distinct ways the girls engaged in learning during Lunchtime Science: gleaning content for outside worlds, supporting the group, negotiating stories across worlds, and critiquing science. Each pattern had a signature profile with variations in the sociohistorical narratives used as resources, the positioning of one another as competent learners, and the type of science story critiqued and constructed. These findings indicate that when the girls were given opportunities to engage their personal narratives, and when science was open to critique, ethnic minority girls leveraged common historical narratives to build science narratives. Moreover, the girls’ identity work problematizes the commonplace instructional notion of “bridging” students’ everyday stories with science stories, which often privileges the science story and the composing of “science” identities. It also challenges researchers to investigate how the construction of narratives is broader than 1 community of practice, broader than 1 individual, and broader than 1 generation.     

超迈前贤 津梁后学——席泽宗院士的科学史研究

阐释了《古新星新表》对古代新星、超新星爆发记录资料所做的整理工作的重要学术价值,指出了以《古新星新表》一文为代表的这项工作是在古代天象记录的现代应用方面取得的一项重大成果,开创了一个古为今用的天文学史研究分支。又以五个研究案例说明了席泽宗如何以“公正、客观、实事求是”的“科学精神”进行科学史研究。最后评述了席泽宗对中国古代科学思想史的研究、对“李约瑟难题”的解读和对康熙科技政策的批评,认为席泽宗不因为学术成果的积累、学术名望的上升和年龄的增长而在学术上趋于保守,体现了一位真正学者的大家风范。     

发展我国天文科普旅游初探

近几年来，人们对各种天象的好奇心和对天知识的渴求日益强烈，社会上出现了“天热”，在知识经济，科教兴国与旅游大众化的时代背景下，尝试把天科普与旅游开发结合起来，中系统分析发展我国天科普旅游的有利条件及障碍因素，阐述发展中国天科普旅游的重要意义，并提出几点开发建议。     

The Effects of Text Familiarity and Cohesion on Retrieval of Information Learned from Text

This study examined the effects of familiarity of passage concepts and passage cohesion on retrieval of text information. In order to distinguish between comprehension and retrieval processes, subjects were equated on comprehension; therefore, any differences found could be attributed to differences in retrieval processes. The passages used varied on familiarity and cohesion, but syntax was held constant. Middle school students learned information in passages to an 85% correct criterion using a study-test procedure. The subjects were not told that they would be tested on the material. Two weeks later, they took a free recall test and reported their rehearsal of the passage information during the intervening time period. The results showed that although the original amount learned was equated, recall of propositions from passages with more familiar concepts was about 35% greater than the recall from passages with less familiar concepts. There were no significant differences due to cohesion or the interaction of cohesion and familiarity. The explanation presented is that familiarity stimulates elaboration of passage material and elaborations provide alternate retrieval pathways at recall. Educational implications are discussed.