Developmental patterns of spatial ability: an early sex difference

Over 1,800 public school students (grades K-12, ages 6-18) took a battery of 7 spatial tests tailored to their respective developmental levels. Analyses of resulting data indicate that it is feasible to measure spatial ability throughout this developmental range with modified versions of adult paper-and-pencil tests, that a male advantage in spatial performance appears reliably by age 10, and that the magnitude of the advantage remains constant through age 18. Analysis of covariance suggests that an early female precocity in language skills may mask a male advantage in spatial ability during the primary school years. There is no indication of a sex difference in kindergarten children.     

The role of dynamic spatial ability in geoscience text comprehension

The current experiment investigated the effects of a dynamic spatial ability on comprehension of a geoscience text on plate tectonics and the causes of volcanic activity. 162 undergraduates (54% female) from a large public university who had little prior knowledge of this science content area were asked to learn about plate tectonics. Measures of spatial ability and working memory capacity were used to predict comprehension from a text that contained either no images, static images, or animated versions of the static images. Only the dynamic spatial ability measure interacted with the type of illustrations contained in the text, and was shown to be especially relevant for comprehension when readers did not receive animations. These results demonstrate a novel influence of individual differences in dynamic spatial ability on comprehension of text describing dynamic spatial phenomena.     

Reading ability and short-term memory: The role of phonological processing

The aim of the current study was to further explore the connection between verbal short-term recall and phonological processing for two purposes: (a) To investigate the basis of short-term memory deficits for children with reading disability, and (b) To further explore the origin of developmental verbal memory span increases.Using a variety of memory and phonological tasks, reading group comparisons were conducted testing third-grade good readers and poor readers, and developmental changes were studied with pre-kindergarten, first-grade and third-grade children. The main finding was that a strong relationship was observed between efficiency of phonological processes and capacity of verbal memory supporting the hypothesis that reducing phonological processing requirements in verbal short-term memory increases available resources for storage. No such relationship was found between phonological processing and nonverbal memory. This conclusion was supported by two findings: (a) The verbal short-term memory deficits in poor readers significantly correspond with less accurate phonological processing, and (b) Developmental increases in verbal STM are accompanied by more accurate and rapid execution of phonological tasks.     

Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: a meta-analysis

Sex differences in spatial ability are widely acknowledged, yet considerable dispute surrounds the magnitude, nature, and age of first occurrence of these differences. This article focuses on 3 questions about sex differences in spatial ability: What is the magnitude of sex differences in spatial ability? On which aspects of spatial ability are sex differences found? and When, in the life span, are sex differences in spatial ability first detected? Implications for clarifying the linkage between sex differences in spatial ability and other differences between males and females are discussed. We use meta-analysis, a method for synthesizing empirical studies, to investigate these questions. Results of the meta-analysis suggest that sex differences arise on some types of spatial ability but not others, that large sex differences are found only on measures of mental rotation, that smaller sex differences are found on measures of spatial perception, and that, when sex differences are found, they can be detected across the life span.     

Co-development of math anxiety,math self-concept,and math value in adolescence: The roles of parents and math teachers

Despite the well-documented negative implications of math anxiety on math learning, a scarcity of theory-guided, long-term longitudinal research limits knowledge about how math anxiety develops over time. Guided by the Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions (Pekrun, 2006), the present study addresses this gap by examining (1) how math anxiety develops in tandem with the development of control and value appraisals across secondary schooling, and (2) how these three constructs co-develop in relation to characteristics of home and school contexts. We used growth mixture modeling to investigate how math anxiety, math self-concept (a frequently examined indicator of control appraisal), and math utility value (one dimension of math value) develop in parallel in a sample of 3116 adolescents, who were assessed annually across middle and high school. We identified three trajectory classes: a stable class, characterized by stably modest math anxiety, high math self-concept, and high math utility value, a linear change class, characterized by increasing math anxiety and decreasing math self-concept and utility value, and a fluctuating class, characterized by curvilinear changes in math anxiety, math self-concept, and math utility value. Parental academic support and teacher bias differentiated the stable class from the fluctuating class at the transition to middle school, and from the linear change class at the transition to high school. Our findings point to the heterogeneous contributions of control and value appraisals towards the development of math anxiety and highlight the importance of investigating multiple dimensions of the socio-ecological context at different stages of math anxiety development.     

The role of spatial ability in mixed reality learning with the HoloLens

The use of mixed reality in science education has been increasing and as such it has become more important to understand how information is learned in these virtual environments. Spatial ability is important in many learning contexts, but especially in neuroanatomy education where learning the locations and spatial relationships between brain regions is paramount. It is currently unclear what role spatial ability plays in mixed reality learning environments, and whether it is different compared to traditional physical environments. To test this, a learning experiment was conducted where students learned neuroanatomy using both mixed reality and a physical plastic model of a brain (N = 27). Spatial ability was assessed and analyzed to determine its effect on performance across the two learning modalities. The results showed that spatial ability facilitated learning in mixed reality (β = 0.21, P = 0.003), but not when using a plastic model (β = 0.08, P = 0.318). A non-significant difference was observed between the modalities in terms of knowledge test performance (d = 0.39, P = 0.052); however, mixed reality was more engaging (d = 0.59, P = 0.005) and learners were more confident in the information they learned compared to using a physical model (d = 0.56, P = 0.007). Overall, these findings suggest that spatial ability is more relevant in virtual learning environments, where the ability to manipulate and interact with an object is diminished or abstracted through a virtual user interface.     

Individual differences in spatial text processing: High spatial ability can compensate for spatial working memory interference

The present study investigates the relation between spatial ability and visuo-spatial and verbal working memory in spatial text processing. In two experiments, participants listened to a spatial text (Experiments 1 and 2) and a non-spatial text (Experiment 1), at the same time performing a spatial or a verbal concurrent task, or no secondary task. To understand how individuals who differ in spatial ability process spatial text during dual task performance, spatial individual differences were analyzed. The tasks administered were the Vandenberg and Kuse [Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotation, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 599-604.] mental rotation test (MRT) and a reading comprehension task (RCT). Individuals with high (HMR) and low (LMR) mental rotation differed in MRT scores but had similar RCT performance. Results showed that the HMR group, in contrast with LMR counterparts, preserved good spatial text recall even when a spatial concurrent task was performed; however, Experiment 2 revealed a modification of spatial concurrent task performance in LMR as well in HMR group. Overall, results suggest that HMR individuals have more spatial resources than LMR individuals, allowing them to compensate for spatial working memory interference, but only to a limited extent, given that the processing of spatial information is still mediated by VSWM.     

Concurrent and longitudinal associations between parental educational involvement,teacher support,and math anxiety: The role of math learning involvement in elementary school children

Environmental and individual factors are regarded as powerful predictors of math anxiety. However, their joint contribution to predicting math anxiety has not been thoroughly explored. To address this, two studies were conducted to examine how parental educational involvement and teacher support related to math evaluation anxiety and learning math anxiety concurrently (Study 1) and longitudinally (Study 2) and whether the effect of parental educational involvement and teacher support on math anxiety needed to go through math learning involvement. Third-grade students (Study 1: N = 1780, Study 2: N = 1850) from three public elementary schools participated in the studies. Concurrent analyses revealed that higher parental educational involvement and teacher support were associated with higher math learning involvement and lower math anxiety. Moreover, math learning involvement partially mediated the relation between parental educational involvement and math evaluation anxiety, teacher support and math evaluation anxiety, teacher support and learning math anxiety, but fully mediated the relation between parental educational involvement and learning math anxiety. Longitudinally, robust associations were found between current parental educational involvement, current teacher support, and subsequent learning math anxiety. But similar patterns did not emerge in math evaluation anxiety. Specifically, the direct effect of parental educational involvement and teacher support on math evaluation anxiety was not significant. These findings suggested the importance of taking into account the dimension of math anxiety when understanding the mechanisms of math anxiety from a dynamic developmental perspective. We demonstrate areas that need improvement and suggest possible future directions.     

Identifying children with persistent low math achievement: The role of number-magnitude mapping and symbolic numerical processing

Although an increasing number of research studies have investigated the cognitive deficits related to difficulties in learning mathematics, little is known about whether these cognitive deficits longitudinally predict low mathematics achievement over time. The current 6-year longitudinal study was conducted to address this issue. A sample of 101 students was tested on various numerical and cognitive competencies when they were in kindergarten and in Grade 1. They were then followed until they were in Grade 6, and their mathematics achievement was assessed bi-annually. A group of persistent low mathematics achievers (PLA) who scored consistently below the 25th percentile was identified. This group of PLA showed difficulties in most of the numerical tasks as early as kindergarten. More importantly, three of the early predictors correctly identified 79% of the PLAs. The current findings provide valuable information concerning the core cognitive deficits underlying difficulties in learning mathematics as well as an important tool for educators for identifying children who are at risk of persistent math learning difficulties in the elementary school years.     

A longitudinal analysis of sex differences in math and spatial skills in primary school age children

We report on a longitudinal study designed to assess possible sex differences in math achievement, math ability, and math-related tasks during the primary school age years. Participants included over 200 children from one public school district. Annual assessments included measures of math ability, math calculation achievement scores, rapid naming and decoding tasks, visual perception tests, visual motor tasks, and reading skills. During select years of the study we also administered tests of counting and math facts skills. We examined whether girls or boys were overrepresented among the bottom or top performers on any of these tasks, relative to their peers, and whether growth rates or predictors of math-related skills differed for boys and girls. Our findings support the notion that sex differences in math are minimal or nonexistent on standardized psychometric tests routinely given in assessments of primary school age children. There was no persistent finding suggesting a male or female advantage in math performance overall, during any single year of the study, or in any one area of math or spatial skills. Growth rates for all skills, and early correlates of later math performance, were comparable for boys and girls. The findings fail to support either persistent or emerging sex differences on non-specialized math ability measures during the primary school age years.     

数学教学中学生创新能力的培养

新的课程标准把培养学生勇于探索、通于创新的科学精神 ,明确地写入了基本理念之中。学生创新能力的培养是现在学校教育的方向。数学教学在发展学生的创新能力 ,克服高分低能现象中有不可推卸的责任和义务。中学数学课堂教学中如何培养学生的创新精神、创新能力 ?一、课堂讨论探究 ,启发引导学生“发现”新知。“一个坏教师奉送真理 ,一个好教师则教人发现真理”。我们不仅要传授知识 ,更重要的是要善于引导学生在学习、分析、探究、解决问题的进程中 ,去主动地发现新知 ,使他们获得探索真理的能力。这种能力就是创新能力 ,在数学课堂教学中…     

Students' teaching career expectations by gender and ability levels in science and math: The role of salary and numeracy skills

Understanding what factors foster young people's aspirations to work as teachers is critical for designing effective recruitment policies, and for ensuring that enough youngsters enter the teaching profession. We examine what factors explain between-country differences in the percentage of 15-year-old students who expect to work as teachers as adults. We focus on two factors: (1) the salaries teachers can expect to earn compared to professionals in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM); and (2) the skill levels teachers have compared to STEM professionals. Relative salaries indicate if (and to what extent) the financial returns associated with teaching careers are higher or lower than professional STEM careers dominated by men. Relative skills highlight the investment in human capital that teachers are expected to make to be able to enter the profession, as well as the social and cultural status that is associated with teaching. We used data from 29 countries that participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment and the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies. In countries where teacher salaries and numeracy skills were high compared to those commanded by STEM professionals, gender gaps in teaching career expectations were smaller. High-ability students in science and mathematics were more likely to expect to work as teachers in countries where teachers have comparatively higher numeracy skills. Our findings show that when teacher salaries are competitive in relationship to the salaries of STEM professionals, more students overall expect to work as teachers. However, whilst low- and middle-performing students in science and mathematics were attracted by economic incentives, high-performing students in science and mathematics were not.     

Visuospatial anatomy comprehension: The role of spatial visualization ability and problem‐solving strategies

The present study explored the problem‐solving strategies of high‐ and low‐spatial visualization ability learners on a novel spatial anatomy task to determine whether differences in strategies contribute to differences in task performance. The results of this study provide further insights into the processing commonalities and differences among learners beyond the classification of spatial visualization ability alone, and help elucidate what, if anything, high‐ and low‐spatial visualization ability learners do differently while solving spatial anatomy task problems. Forty‐two students completed a standardized measure of spatial visualization ability, a novel spatial anatomy task, and a questionnaire involving personal self‐analysis of the processes and strategies used while performing the spatial anatomy task. Strategy reports revealed that there were different ways students approached answering the spatial anatomy task problems. However, chi‐square test analyses established that differences in problem‐solving strategies did not contribute to differences in task performance. Therefore, underlying spatial visualization ability is the main source of variation in spatial anatomy task performance, irrespective of strategy. In addition to scoring higher and spending less time on the anatomy task, participants with high spatial visualization ability were also more accurate when solving the task problems. Anat Sci Educ 7: 280–288. © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.     

The school-level standardized testing policy and math achievement in primary grades: The mediational role of math instructional approach

This study investigates how school-level standardized testing policy at Grade 1 is directly and indirectly linked to math achievement in primary grades. Using nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort data drawn from the U.S., the sample consists of 6774 children nested in 925 elementary schools. Findings from a multilevel full structural mediation analysis indicate that despite children’s short-term gains at Grade 1, the positive effects of frequent testing policy at Grade 1 do not persist in Grade 3. In contrast, school-level standardized testing policies were negatively associated with math achievement at Grade 3 mediated by procedural instructional approaches (e.g., drills). The findings provide empirical evidence on the validity of standardized testing in primary-grade mathematics and offer implications for teachers, educational policymakers, and researchers.     

Individual differences in gender role beliefs influence spatial ability test performance

The gender role hypothesis posits that performance on a cognitive ability test is influenced by whether the test instructions frame the test as measuring a skill that is consistent or inconsistent with the test taker's gender role beliefs. The Bem sex role inventory was used to measure the gender role of female college students, and the group embedded figures test (GEFT) was used to measure their spatial ability. Masculine gender role women scored significantly higher on the GEFT when the test was described as measuring spatial ability, whereas feminine gender role women scored significantly higher when the test was described as measuring empathy. In a second experiment, men did not show the same effects. Implications of individual differences in gender role beliefs are discussed.     

性别角色的言语差异

语言中的性别差异是客观存在的社会现象.本文从心理语言学的角度,探讨性别角色言语机能的生理差异;从社会语言学的角度,探讨性别角色言语特色的心理差异;从文化语言学的角度,探讨性别角色言语差异的文化内涵.     

Impact of math self-efficacy,math anxiety,and growth mindset on math and science career interest for middle school students: the gender moderating effect

European Journal of Psychology of Education - This study tested a proposed model consisting of mathematics anxiety, mathematics self-efficacy, and implicit theories of intelligence in predicting...     

Social and dimensional comparisons in math and verbal test anxiety: Within- and cross-domain relations with achievement and the mediating role of academic self-concept

The present study builds on two strands of research: (1) the recently established generalized internal/external frame of reference (GI/E) model assuming social (comparing one’s achievement in one domain with the achievement of one’s peers in the same domain) and dimensional (comparing one’s achievement in one domain with one’s achievement in another domain) comparison processes in the formation of motivational constructs and self-perceptions, and (2) research on domain-specific facets of test anxiety. Using a sample of 5135 German seventh grade students, it is tested whether and how both comparison processes are involved in the formation of domain-specific facets of test anxiety when considering both the emotionality and worry components of test anxiety, and whether the relation between achievement and test anxiety is mediated through academic self-concept. When applying the GI/E model to test anxiety, the results showed negative relations between achievement and test anxiety within math and verbal (German) domains, but partially positive relations across domains. This pattern of relations emerged for both the worry and emotionality components while stronger achievement relations were found for worry. These findings indicate that dimensional achievement comparison processes operate in the formation of domain-specific test anxiety. Domain-specific academic self-concepts were found to mediate the relations between achievement and test anxiety within and across domains, the mediation being stronger for worry than for emotionality as an outcome. Boys and girls did not differ regarding direct and indirect relations among constructs. Implications for research on dimensional comparison processes and test anxiety are discussed.     

数学教学中培养学生探索能力的策略及启示

本文从教育学、心理学的有关理论出发,提出在数学教学中可通过创设问题情境,加强问题的变式、引申和推广,引导学生解题后主动反思等方法,来培养学生的探索能力,并提出了一些相关的建议。