The blurry spectrums of team identity threat

Team identity threat is an area of growing interest in sport consumer behaviour. Despite scholars’ calls for examinations of prolonged threat in the context of sustained team performance failure, researchers have not yet answered the call. In the current study, the authors use social identity as a theoretical lens, interviewing fans of a historically poor-performing team. Results indicate such fans cope with prolonged threat through social creativity and competition; they also perceive their social identity as distinct. More critically, the authors find that the identity threat experienced by these fans is not just unique due to the duration of threat, but also the threat’s salience and overall impact on the identity meaning. In light of findings and existing literature, the authors introduce spectrums that illustrate the different types of threat fans may experience. Because identity threat differs contextually, these spectrums are understood as blurry.     

March sadness: Coping with fan identity threat

While a majority of team identification studies have focused on the influence of psychological connection on organizational objectives, it is important to also examine the influence of team identification on fans in terms of their well-being. Considering the latter, there has been a relative lack of inquiry into how identified fans cope with identity threat, such as program scandal. In the current study, the author uses autoethnography, an interpretive ethnographic mode of inquiry, to examine her Syracuse University Men’s Basketball fandom and her reaction to sanctions imposed on the program in 2015. In doing so, the author finds that she relied on multiple emotion-focused coping strategies over a one-year period to deal with identity threat until a series of positive team-related events restored her identity. The author also finds that her role identities as fan and scholar frequently conflicted one another. Theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications of the current study are discussed.     

The exclusiveness of group identity in celebrations of team success

Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) describes individuals’ tendency to publicly affiliate themselves with successful others. Within sport, scholars have provided foundational knowledge pertaining to BIRGing; however, they have not deeply engaged with sport fans to understand the influence of multiple group identities in celebrating team success. Using social identity theory and social identity complexity as theoretical frameworks in the current study, I conduct qualitative research with sport fans to understand how multiple group identities influence fan behaviours in response to team performance. I discover that fans (1) BIRG and blast for an enhanced sense of inclusiveness and distinctiveness, and (2) possess multiple, ordinarily inclusive group identities, which converge into a highly exclusive social identity structure immediately before, during, and after games against rivals. I conclude by discussing the potential theoretical and managerial implications regarding multiple group identities in sport contexts, as well as directions for future research.     

The meaning of team in team identification

A voluminous literature exists on the relationship between team identification and various consumer thoughts, attitudes, and behaviours. However, the psychological meaning of team to consumers remains unknown, as scholars have studied individuals’ identification with a team without empirically investigating its meaning. Following an interpretive mode of inquiry in this study, the authors used interviews and concept mapping to understand the meaning of team among fans of two separate teams. An important discovery is that the meaning of team evolves due to environmental changes and personal experiences. At the same time, the authors determined that the meaning of team in team identification has three broad components: place, past, and present, each of which uniquely contributes to the identity. The authors conclude by discussing the implications of this research on the team identification literature and offering suggestions to practitioners and researchers.     

Fans and states at work: a Ghanaian fan trip to the FIFA World Cup 2010 in South Africa

The FIFA World Cup for men (hereafter referred to as the FIFA World Cup) is possibly the biggest global media event. Winning or losing often gives rise to expressions of collective degrees of national pride or disappointment. But, it is not only the performance of the teams that is of significance in this respect; the devotion of fans to the game and their loyalty to their own national team are also an important vehicle of identity and self-affirmation as a nation. Thus, no country can afford to dispense with the travelling model of the enthusiastic fan as a representative of national identity. Through an ethnographic study of Ghana’s state-financed fan trip to the FIFA World Cup 2010 in South Africa, we will show how the actors involved (government, opposition, fans and media) negotiate national identity and representation.     

“If people are wearing pink stuff they’re probably not real fans”: Exploring women’s perceptions of sport fan clothing

Given the growth in the female sport fan base of North American major league sports and the development and expansion of women’s team-related apparel, the purpose of this study was to examine women sport fans’ perceptions of team apparel. The authors collected data through in-depth interviews with 16 Canadian women who self-identified as fans of professional sport teams. They perceived a lack of options in team apparel, despite the development of women’s clothing lines. Analysis of the aesthetics, symbolism, and instrumentality of team apparel using a third-wave feminist approach provides socio-cultural explanations for women fans’ dissatisfaction with existing offerings. This approach advances understandings of the social circumstances shaping women’s sport experiences as fans and the impact of gender on consumer engagement. Results suggest that sport teams need to recognize the diversity of women’s gender identities and expressions and provide a wider range of clothing that demonstrate their status as authentic fans.     

It’s our club! From supporter psychological ownership to supporter formal ownership

A major development in international sport governance is the increasing number of clubs owned by supporters. Researchers have advocated for more supporter involvement in the governance of sport teams but have not fully explained why some supporters attempt to become team owners. Sport governance scholars have also generally ignored the perspectives of those fans that do not seek to become club owners. In the current study, the authors took the perspective of psychological ownership theory and used semi-structured interviews to examine the perspectives of a professional football team’s supporters, some of which were interested in becoming team shareholders. The authors found that a primary reason supporters attempt to become club owners lies in their sense of psychological ownership for their team. Following this sense of ownership, supporter ownership initiatives appear to follow a certain pattern of events, including a sense of dissatisfaction, expressing such dissatisfaction in an attempt to bring about change, and eventually, initiating a formal ownership movement after reaching a tipping point. Lastly, the authors found that during supporter ownership movements, the actions taken by supporters involved in such initiatives may impact fans not involved in the ownership movement. The study makes contributions to sport governance, fan behavior, psychological ownership and fan social network literatures.     

A fan’s search for meaning: Testing the dimensionality of sport fan superstition

Uncertainty is a fundamental component of spectator sport fandom. While it may draw some fans to an event, it can be frustrating for others, as fans have little control over how preferred teams perform. As a means to cope with this unpleasant state, some sport fans perform superstitions or create rituals. Little is known, however, how such beliefs and behaviors impact the sport fan experience. In the current study, the authors explored sport fan superstition within the context of mediated team sport spectatorship through a multi-study quantitative approach. The results of Study 1 validated a multidimensional model of sport fan superstition, and superstitious behavior positively impacted in-game mood states for fans of winning and losing teams. In Study 2, the authors tested the dimensionality of sport fan superstition through segmentation and uncovered consumption differences and attribution differences for fans of winning and losing teams. Superstitious behavior was once again an influential factor, as those who behaved more superstitiously were more likely to attribute outcomes to external sources such as referees and fate.     

‘It was precious to me from the beginning’: material objects,long-distance fandom and home

Material objects and football fandom are intimately linked. As a repository of emotion, memorabilia holds value as a marker of identity. For many football fans, the conception of ‘home’ is integral to their identity. Despite its centrality to football fans’ construction of identity, the notion of ‘home’ has received little attention from sports scholars. Drawing on recent work in cultural geography, this paper employs concepts of home to explore the ways in which materiality holds identity for football fans. Evidence from New Zealand-based fans of European teams displays how material objects are able to collapse distance between fans and their club, acting as palimpsests for memory and narratives for significant emotional experiences. Embedded in the New Zealand home of the fan, memorabilia resides as an emotional bridge to their football home locality, stadia and supporters.     

‘I was there from the start’: The identity-maintenance strategies used by fans to combat the threat of losing

On-field performances are a key, yet uncontrollable, determinant of team identification. In this research, we explore how fans of a new team, with an overwhelming loss to win ratio, maintain a positive social identity. Qualitative data gathered from 20 semi-structured interviews were used to address this research objective. Our findings indicated fans use social creativity and social mobility strategies to help preserve a positive and distinctive group identity. In the absence of success, fans evaluated the group on dimensions that reflected positively on, and emphasised the distinctiveness of, group membership. Fans also sought to increase their status in the group to increase the positivity of this association. We use these findings to extend understanding of social identity theory and provide recommendations for sport organisations with unfavourable performance records. Recommendations are themed around highlighting the unique nature of the group and favourable status comparisons between members of the in-group.     

Viewing sports online together? Psychological consequences on social live streaming service usage

Social live streaming services (SLSSs) have recently been introduced as a new type of synchronous social networking services for sport fans. Given the popularity of these innovations, the authors examined how the use of SLSSs can augment users’ social well-being and mitigate loneliness through the mechanisms of team identification, flow experiences, and satisfaction with SLSSs. To this end, the researchers collected data from 231 SLSS users who watched sport events over the SLSS platforms during the past 12 months. Results indicated that four types of gratification expectations positively influenced the users’ flow states. Among highly identified users with their preferred teams, affective gratification exerted the greater impact on the flow, predicting satisfaction with SLSSs. Such satisfaction enabled the users to enhance their social well-being and ease their feelings of loneliness. This study provides empirical evidence and new insights that elevate our understanding of SLSSs for sports content.     

Team identification and sports fandom as predictors of fan aggression: The moderating role of ageing

In the current study, the explored the moderating role of ageing in the relationship between team identification/fandom and fan aggression. The authors used an online panel-based survey that offered access to a realworld population of sports fans. Participants were 740 fans of Israeli professional basketball. Results from structural equation modelling demonstrated that older fans reported higher levels of mere sports fandom and lower levels of self-reported aggression and acceptance of aggression. Moreover, age moderated the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and self-reported aggression, such that team identification (or fandom) was more strongly associated with selfreported fan aggression among younger fans than among older fans. The moderating role of age in the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and perceptions of appropriateness of aggression was not supported. The findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of the role of ageing in the relationship between fan identification and fan aggression. Based on these findings, the authors assert that managers might particularly benefit from leveraging the potential, but often neglected, segment of senior fans, since older fans can play a key role in reducing the level of aggression during competitive sports events. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

The (Re)Constitution of football fandom: Hapoel Katamon Jerusalem and its supporters

Abstract

Hapoel Katamon Jerusalem, a fan owned club in Israel, was established in 2007 by fans of Hapoel Jerusalem, in protest against the management of the original club. The fans have adopted anti-racism, opposition to violence and inclusiveness as markers of their identity, while stressing their links with the surrounding community. The paper emphasizes the role of reflexivity and agency, as the fans built the new club to embody their aspirations. The emphasis on reflexivity is required to integrate in the analysis, both macro-social elements, and processes linked with ‘everyday life’. The paper stresses the unintended consequences of the fans’ success, in creating a football club owned by them. The performance of HKJ fandom forged, over a short time, an inclusive ‘protected space’, wherein norms of solidarity and trust were developed. Such a space attracted several thousand persons – many of them coming to football for the first time – and cultivated a sense of ‘community’ that has become of growing importance in the fans’ collective identity.     

Managing co-creation in professional sports: The antecedents and consequences of ritualized spectator behavior

Ritual behaviors connected to sporting events and teams are a commonplace example of ‘co-creation’. While largely positive, some of these ritual behaviors can be against team and public interests. This raises the issue of if, and how, teams should seek to manage rituals. This paper reports on two studies of sports fans undertaken to examine: (a) how widespread ritual behavior is; (b) how rituals form and why; and (c) the relationship between engagement in ritual behavior and other desirable attitudes and behaviors. The main findings are that ritualized behaviors are very common, largely fan-developed, and can form very quickly. A positive relationship was found to exist between ritual behavior and outcomes such as satisfaction, team identification, merchandize expenditure and game attendance. Longitudinal tracking of individual fans suggests that ritual behaviors drive those outcomes, rather than the inverse.     

Beyond Tippekampen: the origins and maintenance of Scandinavian support for the Liverpool FC

Professional sport is a highly marketable product, whereby favourite teams often become ‘overseas sweethearts’ for millions of satellite supporters and their imagined community of like-minded fans. Scandinavia has historically proven to be a fertile market for English football and is home to some of the largest supporter groups for English clubs, in particular the Liverpool FC. This article examines the origins of Scandinavian identification with the Merseyside club and how satellite supporters in the region maintain a connection with the famous brand. Scandinavian supporters highlighted the importance of the media, especially the popularity of state-run television programmes such as Tippekampen, the team’s playing style and the presence of star players in their initial support for Liverpool FC and explained how they had turned to a virtual ‘third place’ to regularly connect and engage with fellow fans and the brand in cyberspace. In a global marketplace, satellite supporters are critical for the future of many brands and this article offers a valuable case study for those who seek to exploit these markets, monetize these consumers and build equity for their team brands.     

The ‘club versus country’ debate: investigating English fan loyalty toward club and national teams

The ‘club versus country’ debate, which refers to an individual’s allegiance to their respective club and national teams, has become an increasingly popular topic for debate in the context of English football. Whilst prior work in this area has focused on the tensions between club officials and national associations, this study investigated the attitudinal and behavioural loyalty of fans towards club and national teams. Data were collected from 647 football fans across 16 English club teams utilizing a survey approach. Findings suggest that those with high levels of loyalty to their club are more likely to be loyal to the national team, questioning whether this is a ‘versus’ debate at all from the fan perspective. In addition, Premier League fans display lower levels of attitudinal loyalty to the national team than lower league fans, which may reflect underlying concerns that club players may sustain injuries in national team matches.     

Fandom face to face

This essay focuses on the contexts away from the stadium where fans congregate, organise, develop and learn to perform their fandom. I define the concept of performance and show how it applies to fandom. I describe how, in small to medium scale, face-to-face settings, fans are able to form bonds and validate each others’ fandom. For some, fandom is an extension of playing the game as in Holland, where one might play in the amateur ranks of one of the famous professional teams. In Italy, organised fandom follows from a history of neighbourhood social clubs. I describe the Roma Club Testaccio as the epicentre of Roma fandom, and how it serves to educate fans in Roman-ness. Hardcore fan clubs support the team home and away, and I describe one of my own intense experiences travelling on the bus with some of the most notorious hardcore fans in Italy. Italians can also visit the grounds at which their beloved team practices and where they can catch a glimpse of the players up close, and connect with other devotees. As these snapshots demonstrate, the social gatherings of fans away from the football stadium are where fandom takes shape.     

Does it really matter? A study on soccer fans’ perceptions of ethical leadership and their role as “stakeowners”

Ethical leadership is increasingly studied in the context of soccer clubs, as it is believed to represent an effective answer to soccer’s “dark side.” However, current academic understanding is limited to key internal stakeholders’ perspectives, such as coaches and players. A highly relevant stakeholder group that is still largely neglected is fans, as they are believed to be uniquely able to influence leadership in sport clubs, while some of soccer’s ethical issues, such as violence and discrimination are strongly associated with fans. This study highlights this duality by referring to fans as “stakeowners,” namely legitimate stakeholders with certain rights as well as responsibilities. Moreover, the authors examine whether ethical leadership by soccer club leaders really matters to fans. Drawing on a qualitative case study in a Belgian professional soccer club, findings indicate fans care mainly about those aspects of ethical leadership that impact their own position, such as clear communication and fan empowerment. On the other hand, findings suggest fan influence on the leadership of their club should not be exaggerated. After all, the club’s leadership questions the critical importance of fans as being core to (soccer) management’s activities and leadership.     

Negotiating national identity through loss: Australian newspaper coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup

Sport and the media have long served as arenas for the development of national identity, both of which are examined in this study of the newspaper coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. This article reports on the findings of a content analysis of newspaper coverage of the FIFA World Cup; the newspaper data collected included all major daily Australian newspapers. Following an in-depth analysis, five themes emerged: patriotism; dealing with loss; celebrity; national identity; and ethnicity. This paper examines the related themes of dealing with loss and national identity. Analysis revealed that during the pre-event phase, a clearly articulated national identity was constructed through the media; this was then used as a reference point for subsequent media coverage following Australia’s loss to Germany, a significant turning point for the Australian team. The aim of this article is to investigate the role played by the mass media in the representation, production and construction of Australian national identity within the context of sporting loss in an international competition. Media representation of Australian sporting nationalism is used as a lens through which to examine how elements of Australian national identity were represented, reproduced and reinforced by the media following the Australian soccer team’s poor performance.     

Spectators’ emotional responses in tweets during the Super Bowl 50 game

The author explored spectators’ emotional reactions manifested on social media. By using Twitter search application programming interface, 328,000 real-time tweets posted by fans of the Panthers and the Broncos during the Super Bowl 50 game were collected. The lexicon-based text mining approach (a big data analysis in social media analytics) was employed to classify tweets into five different emotions. The findings indicated that spectators expressed positive emotions when their team scored; conversely, they expressed negative emotions when the opposite team scored. Interestingly, spectators became habituated with each subsequent score from either of their preferred teams, which resulted in fewer expressions of emotions. However, when a team scored soon after the opposite team scored, fans expressed a surge of positive or negative emotions, accordingly. The results supported both the theories of affective disposition and opponent-process. Spectators’ simultaneous experience of positive and negative emotions may contribute to fans’ satisfaction, continued patronage, and mental health.