Gender and Willingness to Confront Hurtful Messages from Romantic Partners

Based on a social role perspective, an individual's hurt and willingness to confront a face attack expressed by a romantic partner were hypothesized to vary with gender, type of face attack, and social context. Undergraduates responding to hypothetical scenarios revealed that when teased, women imagined they would be more hurt and more willing to confront their romantic partners’ attacks than did men. Men reported that they likely would perceive less audience support for confrontation than women. Men reported that they would be less likely than women to confront, regardless of social context. The effect of audience support and hurt are independent and both have comparable influence on willingness to confront. Our findings suggest that responses to hurtful messages are related to the messages’ emotional impact and gender norms.     

英语学习的性别角色差异

在个体社会化过程中,由于男女两性个体遗传素质存在差异,社会对男女性别提出的社会规范与行为标准也不同,个体依照自己的性别逐渐将外在的社会标准内化为自己的行为准则,使他们获得与性别相适应的心理特征和行为模式,这些性别角色的界限及其差别对各种社会活动都有一定影响,同样也表现在学生的外语学习活动中。学校教师在性别角色社会化过程中起着举足轻重的作用。在外语教学中,依据性别角色的基本理论,系统分析男女学生在认识能力、专业兴趣、成就动机、社会认知等方面的性别角色差异,能有效提高教学质量。     

Leadership characteristics and training needs of women and men in charge of Spanish universities

This article discusses the results obtained by two consecutive enquiries into the leadership styles and training needs of women and men leading higher education organisations. It compares the findings of the first stage of two studies, based on ad hoc questionnaires responded to by 136 women and 129 men. Results showed only subtle differences between the leadership styles deployed by the two groups. Both groups viewed organisations as social constructions; they preferred characteristics such as responsibility, ability to get on well with people, motivation capacity, communication and empathy, capacity to tackle difficult situations, and ethical issues. Consistent with this both groups identified similar training needs, which included the acquisition of abilities to deal with interpersonal conflicts and the construction of personal criteria to select the best strategy to face every situation. As no significant differences between male and female leaders were found, it is suggested that research into higher education organisations and their management training needs from a gender perspective should focus on the way both men and women managers tackle problems and situations.     

Study-strategy use in learning from text. Does gender make any difference?

Two studies explored the existence of gender differences in spontaneous study-strategies use while learning from texts. In Study I, the Learning-from-text test (LFT), intended to measure deep-level text comprehension skills by high-school graduates, was about philosophy (n = 200) and in Study II about statistics (n = 487).The results of two sets of data showed significant gender-associated differences in strategy use: female participants used overt study strategies, in particular notetaking more often than male participants. However, no differences between men and women in comprehending either statistical or philosophical texts were found. It was concluded that different study strategies more than gender differentiate the learning outcomes.     

Examining Determinants of Efficacy Judgments as Factors in Health Promotion Message Design

Self-efficacy is a predictor of behavioral performance across a range of health domains, and research suggests that media messages can effectively boost efficacy; however, much is unknown regarding determinants of self-efficacy, and the message features with the greatest potential to alter efficacy perceptions. The authors of this article examined skill and motivation as determinants of efficacy and tested their effectiveness as message variables. Study 1 identified health behaviors that young adults felt unable to perform, as well as behavior barriers and facilitators. Study 2 isolated one behavior, exercise, and tested messages targeting either skill or motivation as a determinant of self-efficacy to exercise. Matched messages engendered greater general self-efficacy than unmatched messages, though no differences emerged on self-efficacy magnitude and strength measures. Follow-up data indicated that participants low in motivation exercised more than those low in skill regardless of message condition. Implications of these findings for health promotion efforts are discussed.     

Following the instructions!: Effects of gender beliefs in mental rotation

Research has widely demonstrated male superiority in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT). Various explanations have been put forward to account for these differences. We considered gender beliefs and argued that women may fare less well than men partly because they are considered unable to perform this kind of task. Beliefs about spatial ability were experimentally manipulated in samples of 107 female and of 90 male high-school students, divided into three groups, following the instructions: men are better, women are better, general (with no gender reference). Our data show that women who expect to be more able than men and men who expect to be more able than women outperformed their counterparts. MRT performance fell for those expecting to be less able. The effects of induced beliefs on cognitive performance are stressed, particularly in the educational context.     

The Influence of Cognitive Complexity,Empathy, and Mindfulness on Person-Centered Message Evaluations

More than 30 years of research shows that highly person-centered (PC) supportive messages that validate and acknowledge the feelings of others are consistently viewed as more beneficial than less PC-based messages. There are, however, differences in how well people can distinguish high and low PC messages. We argue that the combined influence of motivational factors (i.e., empathy) and cognitive factors (i.e., cognitive complexity, mindfulness) significantly impacts how people process and evaluate support messages that vary in PC. Participants (n = 331) completed a survey, and structural equation modeling analyses revealed that both cognitive complexity and empathy predicted the extent to which people are able to differentiate more and less PC messages. Interestingly and in line with past research, mindfulness directly predicted empathy but not cognitive complexity.     

Intelligence,Belief in the Paranormal,Knowledge of Probability and Aging

Older adults are less likely to be using computers and less knowledgeable about Internet security than are younger users. The two groups do not differ on trust of Internet information. The younger group shows no age or gender differences. Within the older group, computer users are more trusting of Internet information, and along with those with more education, are more knowledgeable about security hazards. The oldest women are less knowledgeable about security hazards. Older adults' greater risk when using computers and the Internet may be primarily due to cohort differences in education and computer use.     

Language at work: children's gendered interpretations of occupational titles

A large literature has shown that children's beliefs and aspirations about occupations reflect cultural gender stereotypes. One channel that may create or sustain occupational stereotypes is language. Two studies were designed to examine whether children interpret occupational titles as gender specific or gender neutral. In Study 1, children (6- to 11-year-olds, N = 64) were asked directly if various job titles could be used for both men and women doing the job. In Study 2, children (6- to 10-year-olds, N = 51) were shown pictures of men and women engaged in job activities and asked which one(s) showed someone who could be called a(n)__. Titles were linguistically unmarked for gender (e.g., doctor), strongly marked (e.g., policeman), or weakly marked (e.g., postmaster). Marked titles were given in masculine and feminine forms. Findings reinforced past work showing that marked titles are exclusionary, revealed that some children harbor confusions about even unmarked titles, and demonstrated the mediating role of individual differences in attitudes. Implications for the changing lexicon and for educational programs are discussed.     

Concern or comfort with social comparisons matter in undergraduate physics courses: Joint consideration of situated expectancy-value theory,mindsets, and gender

Guided by situated expectancy-value and mindset theories, we investigated the mediating roles of students’ experiences of social comparisons (social comparison concern, comfort being oneself) in relations between mindsets, motivation (self-efficacy, task values, and cost), and achievement in undergraduate physics. Gender differences in these mediational pathways were examined. We recruited a large sample (N = 1,218) of students in undergraduate physics courses, administered surveys twice during a semester, and obtained final course grades from university records. Multiple-group structural equation modeling revealed (1) protective roles of a growth mindset in motivation and performance via comfort being oneself, (2) detrimental roles of a fixed mindset in the same outcomes via social comparison concern, and (3) significant gender differences in these relations, such that a growth mindset is less beneficial, while a fixed mindset is more harmful for women (vs. men). Results suggest that social comparison concern acts as a mechanism of a fixed mindset for undermining women’s motivation and performance in physics to a greater extent than men. Scholarly contributions and implications are discussed.     

Framing gender identity and sexual orientation: media influence on young men who have sex with men’s health

Sex education takes place in a wide range of contexts including through the media. Media use among young men who have sex with men is high and gender identity and sexual orientation are topics often integrated into today’s media. Little is known about young men who have sex with men’s perceptions of how the media frames messages about gender identity and sexual orientation and the implications these messages have on HIV prevention. A greater understanding of young men who have sex with men’s perceptions of media framing about gender identity and sexual orientation is needed to ensure prevention efforts reach those most impacted by HIV. Focus groups were conducted with forty-two African American men who have sex with men, aged 18–21, living in the Southeastern USA. Thematic analysis revealed that participants reported using the Internet and television to access gender identity and sexual orientation information. Participants felt that the media’s framing of gender identity and sexual orientation only worsened HIV-related stigma and discrimination. Findings illustrate the important role that media can play in educating about gender identity and sexual orientation and the implications this framing has for HIV prevention.     

Motivation and coping with the stress of assessment: Gender differences in outcomes for university students

The main objectives of the present research were to test a conceptual model linking motivational processes involved in coping with the stress of university assessment, and to examine gender differences in these processes. Self-determined motivation was hypothesized to predict coping strategies and the response to assessment-related stress, and coping was hypothesized to play a considerable role in short- and long-term outcomes of assessment. We examined this model using multiple group path analysis. In Study 1 (N = 265), music students’ use of engagement-coping strategies led to stronger musical career intentions, while disengagement-coping strategies led to weaker intentions. In Study 2 (N = 340), students’ increased use of engagement coping, and decreased use of disengagement coping strategies led to higher grades, higher positive affect and lower negative affect. In both studies, engagement and disengagement-coping were predicted by autonomous and controlled motivation, respectively. Motivation also indirectly predicted academic outcomes through stress appraisal and coping. While women experienced higher levels of stress, men were more negatively affected by the use of disengagement-oriented coping. Gender differences were also found on the links between engagement-oriented coping and outcomes. These results fill an important gap in the literature regarding gender differences in the outcomes coping in education, as well as contributing to a better understanding of the processes linking motivation, coping and academic outcomes.     

Reducing the sex difference in math anxiety: The role of spatial processing ability

Decades of research have demonstrated that women experience higher rates of math anxiety – that is, negative affect when performing tasks involving numerical and mathematical skill – than men. Researchers have largely attributed this sex difference in math anxiety to factors such as social stereotypes and propensity to report anxiety. Here we provide the first evidence that the sex difference in math anxiety may be due in part to sex differences in spatial processing ability. In Study 1, undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing their level of math anxiety and their aptitude and preference for processing spatial configurations and schematic images. The results support the hypothesis that the relation between sex and math anxiety is mediated by spatial processing ability. In Study 2, we replicate these results with a more diverse sample of adults. Implications for the prevention and remediation of math anxiety and math anxiety-related achievement deficits are discussed.     

英语学习动机的性别差异与融入型动机的化解

男女在生理特点和心理活动上存在着巨大的差异,这种差异导致男女在英语学习动机上的不同,从而影响了学习态度和学习策略的选择,使得男女生语言学习的效果有明显区别。融合型动机是指个人学习外语时对语言本身产生了强烈的兴趣,并希望可以融入所学语言的文化为改善大学生因性别差异造成的不良学习后果。鉴于此,在对男女大学生的语言学习动机状况进行调查的基础上,科学分析了差异存在的合理性,并利用融入型动机理论,提出激发学生的融入型动机水平的具体解决措施。     

Values-Alignment Messaging Boosts Adolescents’ Motivation to Control Social Media Use

Two preregistered experiments with 2,733 U.S. high school students (age range = 13–19 years) compared the impact of different messages on adolescents’ motivation to control social media use (SMU). A traditional message emphasized the benefits of avoiding SMU, whereas a values-alignment message framed controlling SMU as being consistent with autonomy and social justice. Compared to no message or a traditional message, in both studies, a values-alignment message led to greater motivation to control SMU immediately afterward, and in Study 2, awareness of “addictive” social media designs 3 months later. As hypothesized, values-alignment messaging was more motivating for girls than boys. Results offer preliminary support for leveraging adolescents’ drives for autonomy and social justice to motivate self-regulation of SMU.     

Gender Differences in Computer Work: Evidence for the Model of Achievement-Related Choices

Numerous studies show that women have less favorable attitudes toward using computers and that they use computers less often than men. However, most studies on gender differences in computer work failed to relate to the large body of research on gender differences in math and science. The study reported here tests whether the model of achievement-related choices, which was originally developed for the math domain, can be used to explain gender differences in computer work. A causal sequence deduced from the model was tested using path analysis. According to the results, the intensity of computer use can be predicted from the computer-specific self-concept of ability that was effected by computer-specific attributions. Gender differences emerged on the means of these variables. Furthermore, the intended choice of computers in a specific situation could be effectively explained by computer-specific self-concept of ability. This effect was mediated by the expectation of success and the perception of the value of computers. Values also affected expectations. For this causal sequence, gender differences emerged only with regard to self-concept of ability and expectancy. Supporting the assumptions of the model of achievement-related choices, the path coefficients did not vary as a function of gender.     

Gender differences in use and preferences of agricultural information sources in Pakistan

Purpose: Rural advisory services ensure agricultural information is disseminated to rural populations, yet they are less accessible to women. This research provides insight on gender differences in information access by investigating frequency of use and preference of agricultural information sources by gender in a rural setting, differentiated according to literacy and age. Design/Methodology/approach: This study interviewed 401 male/female individuals in farm households in Jhang and Bahawalpur district of Punjab, Pakistan in 2016. Findings: Men and women farmers’ use and preferences in accessing information sources are extremely different. Women hardly use sources for agricultural information, and value interpersonal communication from informal sources. In contrast, men use and value official agencies more. Radio, surprisingly, was very rarely used, contradicting previous findings of research elsewhere. Age and literacy affect differences between women more than it does between men, particularly for convenient locations to access information. Practical implications The study identified and refined major gender differences regarding use and preference for agricultural information in relation to age and literacy, and helps to articulate options to improve gender equality of access to agricultural information in Pakistan. Theoretical implications: The focus and outcomes regarding gender intersecting with age and literacy in agricultural information access imply the need for more refined socio-economic models, discerning and interrelating gender and other social dimensions beyond the standard of male-headed households. Originality/value: This paper adds to the growing body of evidence on information access according to gender, highlighting the need to investigate deeper socio-cultural issues around age and literacy.     

The Impact of a Human Sexuality College Course According to Gender: Comparisons of the 1970s and the 1990s [1]

This is a report of a student-developed 24-item human sexuality survey administered pre/post to human sexuality and comparison course students in the 1970s and 1990s with 10 questions added in the 1990s. In the 1970s, nine of the item responses for human sexuality students showed significant pre-test gender differences that were not found in post-testing. This was largely due to changes in the responses of the men, whose views became more egalitarian and more like the women's. In the 1990s, it was changes in the views of women that accounted for most post-test differences but not in a clear pattern. Women in both course types in the 1990s (1) became more accepting than men of sex between same-sex partners and (2) reported less frequency and more 'wrongness' about masturbation. Human sexuality men responded more conservatively in the 1990s than in the 1970s with less post-test similarity to women, as predicted. Nonetheless, in general, after human sexuality input gender responses became more similar in both time periods. Some implications are discussed with reference to sexuality education.     

Support provider mood and familiar versus unfamiliar events: An investigation of social support quality

Much of what communication scholars know about the production of effective comforting messages comes from the constructivist framework of Applegate (1980), Burleson (1985), and others. This paper extends this framework by addressing two questions put forth by scholars in this area, namely, what is the influence of cognition‐inhibiting situational variables such as mood on the generation of sophisticated, person‐centered comforting messages, and is this influence greater in situations requiring increased cognitive processing (Burleson & Planalp, 2000). In this study, support providers’ moods were manipulated before they were presented with either a familiar or an unfamiliar hypothetical support scenario. As hypothesized, results showed that supportive messages provided in response to a familiar situation were significantly more sophisticated than messages provided in response to an unfamiliar situation. Participants exposed to the happy mood induction encoded significantly more sophisticated comforting messages than did participants exposed to the sad mood induction. No effect was found regarding a two‐way interaction between the support provider's mood and the recipient's situation. Results are discussed within the constructivist framework for social support research, and directions for future investigations of social support are suggested.     

Gender differences in motivation and strategy use in science: Are girls rote learners?

This study explored Ridley and Novak's (1983) hypothesis that gender differences in science achievement are due to differences in rote and meaningful learning modes. To test this hypothesis, we examined gender differences in fifth- and sixth-grade students' (N = 213) self-reports of confidence, motivation goals (task mastery, ego, and work avoidance), and learning strategies (active and superficial) in whole-class and small-group science lessons. Overall, the results revealed few gender differences. Compared with girls, boys reported greater confidence in their science abilities. Average-achieving girls reported greater use of meaningful learning strategies than did their male counterparts, whereas low-ability boys reported a stronger mastery orientation than did low-ability girls. The results further showed that students report greater confidence and mastery motivation in small-group than whole-class lessons. In contrast, students reported greater work avoidance in whole-class than small-group lessons. In general, the findings provide little support for Ridley and Novak's hypothesis that girls tend to engage in rote-level learning in science classes. Differences in self-reports of motivation and strategy-use patterns were more strongly related to the student's ability level and to the structure of learning activities (small group vs. whole class) than to gender. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.