Attributions of deception as a function of reward value: A test of two explanations

Nonverbal expectancy violations theory and a cognitive heuristics approach were used to generate predictions regarding attributions of deception directed toward a message source. The appearance of a message source was manipulated to be either higher or lower in attractiveness while engaging in stereotypically deceptive or truthful behavior. A heuristic approach would suggest a main effect for attractiveness on deceptiveness attributions while a nonverbal expectancy violations approach would predict an interaction between the attraction and deception manipulations. An apparent main effect suggested that the more socially attractive message source was perceived to be less deceptive. However, the effect was driven by an interaction that showed the discrepancy in deception attributions between levels of attractiveness was highest in the deceptive behavior condition, as predicted by nonverbal expectancy violations.     

The door‐in‐the‐face compliance strategy: An individual differences analysis of two models in an AIDS fundraising context

This study examined the reciprocal concessions and self‐presentation accounts of the door‐in‐the‐face (DITF) compliance strategy within a fundraising context. Subjects were classified as low or high in exchange orientation, and as low or high in approval motivation on the basis of a pretest questionnaire. As predicted on the basis of reciprocal concessions theory, a significant interaction was obtained between exchange‐orientation and message strategy. For high exchange‐oriented subjects, the DITF message strategy substantially increased compliance rates, relative to the single‐request control message. However, low exchange‐oriented subjects were actually more charitable in response to the control message. Analysis of a post‐treatment measure of obligation to the requestor revealed that obligation could account for less than half of the interaction effect, a finding which is inconsistent with concessions theory. Self‐presentation theory suggests that DITF should work best when directed toward targets who are high in their approval motivation, but this hypothesized interaction between approval motivation and message strategy did not materialize.     

The contingency rules theory of persuasion: An empirical test

The contingency rules theory of persuasion, as alternative to the traditional laws model, assumes that: (1) persuasive behaviors, including compliance‐gaining and responding activities, are governed antecedently by five varieties of self‐evaluative and adaptive behavioral contingency rules; and (2) the context where persuasive communicators interact determines the particular configuration of rules governing their persuasive choices. This research assessed the power of the proposed five‐part rule structure to predict subjects’ responses to messages as functions of the context variables, ego‐involvement, schematic complexity, and affective orientation toward a persuasive issue. Results supported the contingency rules model, in that a significant proportion of the variance in subjects’ behavioral intentions was explained by self‐evaluative and adaptive rules in each context examined in the research. Moreover, the particular mix of rules accounting for intended actions varied sharply as a function of subjects’ levels of ego‐involvement with the persuasive issues, the complexity of their cognitions regarding the issues, and their affective stances toward the issues. The advantages and limitations of the contingency rules theory vis‐a‐vis the laws paradigm are discussed.     

Persuasion and attitude change in science education

Many strategies used to induce the occurrence of desirable science-related beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors involve the use of persuasive messages. Science educators need to become acquainted with persuasion in the context of social influence and learning theory to be able to evaluate its usefulness in the science education milieu. Persuasion is the conscious attempt to bring about a jointly developed mental state common to both source and receiver through the use of symbolic cues, and it can be distinguished from other forms of social influence. Propaganda is a type of persuasion directed toward a mass audience. Coercion relies on reinforcement control, whereas persuasion is prompted by information. Brainwashing involves coercive techniques used to obtain cooperation and compliance. Persuasion and instruction are much alike; both require conscious cognitive activity by the recipient and involve communication which includes giving arguments and evidence for the purpose of getting someone to do something or to believe something. Persuasion research is anchored in learning theory. Early efforts were based on information processing. Studies following an information process approach focused on the effect of the variables harbored within the question “Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?” on belief and attitude change. Cognitive processing and social exchange approaches to persuasion represent extensions to information process. Cognitive processing is concerned specifically with how people personally process the arguments presented in a persuasive message. Social exchange emphasizes the interchange that takes place between the message source and recipient. These approaches seem to be fruitful areas for future persuasion research in science education. Science educators' unfamiliarity with persuasion research stems from the fact that it is largely reported in the social psychology literature and has not been integrated into a framework familiar to educators.     

Weighing opposing positions: Examining the effects of intratextual persuasive messages on students’ knowledge and beliefs

The proliferation of new forms of media has given way to a multitude of new text structures, particularly texts designed to alter the receiver’s perspectives. Yet, little is known about the ways in which these novel text structures alter the characteristics of the receiver including one’s knowledge and beliefs. As such, the purpose of this multi-phase investigation was to explore the persuasion process when students read a persuasive message with an intratextual structure. Intratextual persuasion refers to a text structure in which two one-sided texts are presented together as a single message. As a result of reading an intratextual persuasive message, students’ perceived knowledge increased, and their topic beliefs strengthened differentially based upon students’ position on the controversial issue. Moreover, participants judged the characteristics of the overall commentary similarly, but they rated the characteristics of the two opposing texts differentially based on their position. Implications for research and instruction pertaining to persuasive texts with complex argument structure are forwarded.     

The effect of disgust‐eliciting visuals on attitudes toward animal experimentation

Despite its obvious intersection with classic fear‐inducing stimuli, like rotting teeth and diseased lungs, disgust as a discrete emotion has been all but ignored in the persuasion literature. This study marks an initial effort to explore the effect of disgust as the dominant emotion evoked by a persuasive appeal on attitude change. 134 college students viewed one of four versions of a two‐sided refutational video message arguing in favor of animal experimentation. Visuals in the video's counterargument section were manipulated to show more or less disgusting images of animal experimentation. Visuals in the video's rebuttal section were manipulated to show more or less emotional images defending the medical research position. Results suggest that disgust can be the most dominant emotion elicited by a persuasive message and that disgust may either enhance or inhibit attitude change, depending on the context in which the emotion is used. Further research should consider more specifically the conditions under which disgust may induce persuasion and the cognitive processes through which such effects might occur.     

Toward a holistic approach to communication: The effect of “pure” hemispheric reception on message acceptance

This study examined the relationship between hemispheric processing of complex messages and message acceptance. In particular the research sought to answer several questions regarding the processing and interpretation of persuasive messages and message sources. Based on the results of this research it was concluded that (1) the brain's right and left hemispheres, when isolated from one another, process information according to a particular “style,” (2) that semantic properties of language influence hemispheric processing, and (3) that message sources are perceived differently by the right and left hemispheres. Potential implications for the study of communication in terms of message style and acceptability, language intensity, perceptions of source, and perceptions of threat conclude this analysis.     

Advantages and disadvantages of the speech methods course in college

This study was an attempt to ascertain the relationship between teacher perceived attractiveness and classroom interactions. Eleven elementary school classroom teachers were observed during language arts instruction. After all of the observations were completed, each teacher answered a questionnaire regarding the children in her/his group. The interaction scores of children perceived as attractive or unattractive were then analyzed using a within‐subjects analysis of variance design. Three separate analyses were performed: for the positive, negative, and neutral interactions categories. The results indicated that positive classroom interactions were unevenly distributed. No differences were indicated in any of the other analyses.     

Changing attitudes toward energy conservation: The effect of development advancement on the salience of one-sided and two-sided persuasive communications

Tested was the effect of a one-sided and two-sided persuasive message on the attitudes toward energy conservation of 85 preservice elementary teachers categorized as developmentally or nondevelopmentally advanced with respect to the topic of the message. The study addressed the following questions: (1) Are one-sided and two-sided systematically designed communications more effective in persuading nondevelopmentally advanced and developmentally advanced persons, respectively? (2) Do positive attitude gains between pre- and posttests, if any, dissipate within four weeks following the treatment? The important finding was that the two-sided communication was more effective than the one-sided communication regardless of subjects' level of developmental advancement when attitude change is measured immediately following the treatment. Secondly, positive attitude change dissipated four weeks after exposure to the two-sided communication for developmentally and nondevelopmentally advanced subjects, alike. Thirdly, while the attitudes of nondevelopmentally and developmentally advanced subjects exposed to the one-sided communication did not change immediately after exposure, the nondevelopmentally advanced subjects exhibited a positive shift in attitude four weeks following the presentation of the communication.     

媒介素养教育:信息受众的主体性生成及其意义

大众传播媒介的信息传播网的扩张速度是惊人的，其传播的海量信息对受众的影响也是惊人的.受众信息选择理性的成熟有一个生成的过程.主体的劳动实践和思维能对主体的信息选择和吸收（学习）进行“导向”，并按照一定的目的、计划对受众的信息活动进行限制和纠正，使受众的信息活动减少盲目性和非理性，这是受众主体性生成的价值所在.通过开展媒介素养教育，培养青少年在信息传播与接受的过程中的主体性，具有重要的意义。     

大学"两课"教学状况调查及思考

在“两课”教育教学改革中,只有把学习“两课”与运用科学理论分析和解决问题的能力相结合,教师授课与学生思想、现实问题相结合,课堂课本教学与相关书籍阅读相结合,才能有效地增强“两”教育教学的吸引力、说服力和感染力。     

Eye Movements of Children in Reading English and Hebrew

Time-compressed, tape recorded messages were used to determine if listening to the message twice, in the same amount of time required to listen to the uncompressed message once, would improve listening comprehension scores of high and low aptitude men. The results indicated that for both groups of subjects, listening to the compressed messages twice improved comprehension scores over scores obtained by listening to the compressed tapes once. Comprehension of repeated time compressed messages was not improved over that obtained by a single listening to the uncompressed messages.     

Exploring Subtext Processing in Narrative Persuasion: The Role of Eudaimonic Entertainment-Use Motivation and a Supplemental Conclusion Scene

The extended elaboration likelihood model argues transportation reduces embedded message processing, but this study reasoned people with eudaimonic entertainment-use motivation would process narrative subtexts. A conclusion scene reiterating intended messages was expected to facilitate persuasion. Subjects were randomly assigned to watch a drama about organ donation, with or without a conclusion scene. The intended messages were not persuasive. Nonetheless, this study provides insight into narrative transportation processes. Transportation did not inhibit subtext processing, and there was a marginally significant interaction between eudaimonic motivation and conclusion scene on an unintended message: Eudaimonic motivation negatively predicted doctor mistrust in the no-conclusion condition.     

Effects of Humor on Presence and Recall of Persuasive Messages

This investigation examined how exposure to a humorous persuasive message affects antecedents of presence (i.e., the sensation of being “in” a mediated environment) facilitating message recall. Participants in an experimental study viewed either a humorous or non-humorous version of an alcohol public service announcement and then completed measures of positive emotion, perceived credibility, psychological reactance, presence, and message recall. As predicted, positive emotion was related to an increase in perceived credibility and a decrease in reactance. Increased perceived credibility was associated with greater feelings of presence, negatively affecting recognition memory. These findings suggest that presence may sometimes impede persuasive message recall, although not necessarily to the detriment of attitude change.     

Estimating the economic payoff to virtual university education: a case study of the Open University of Catalonia

This study extends the scope of research that examines the connection between physical attractiveness and student perception through a survey analysis. While other studies concentrate on physical attractiveness alone, we examined not only perceptions of attractiveness but its impact on students’ perception of knowledge, approachability and faculty selection in a hypothetical course. Using ordered logistic regression, logistic regression and ordinary least squares regression to examine the interaction between age, attractiveness, knowledge and approachability, our findings show that younger faculty members are perceived as more approachable and more attractive, while older faculty members are perceived as more knowledgeable. Faculty perceived as more attractive are also perceived to be more approachable. Further, we test the impact that these results have on faculty selection in a hypothetical course and find that students are more likely to select an attractive and approachable faculty member to take a course with, regardless of perceived knowledge of the faculty member. Overall, although the perception of beauty may be cursory, its results may not be when considering the primacy effect, role model effect and teaching effectiveness assessment.     

Are funny people popular? An examination of humor orientation,loneliness, and social attraction

In order to understand the role of humorous communication in relationships, 125 undergraduates completed measures of Humor Orientation (HO), loneliness, and verbal aggressiveness (VA), and then had two acquaintances complete other‐perceived HO and social attractiveness on them. Results indicated that higher HO was associated with lower levels of loneliness. Acquaintances’ perceptions of HO and self‐reported HO were positively related, and people seen as more humorous were also seen as socially attractive. VA individuals did not report more loneliness, but were perceived to be less socially attractive, due in part to the finding that individuals higher in VA tend to target others when they enact humor.     

When teaching style matches students’ epistemic (in)dependence: The moderating effect of perceived epistemic gap

In a 2×2×2 factorial design, 3rd year Romanian psychology students (N=94) were assigned into 2 groups according to the extent to which they acknowledged an epistemic dependence (lowvs. high) toward their professor. They then compared the competence of 3rd year students to that of 1st year or 5th year students. Finally, they were exposed to a persuasive counter-attitudinal message from an epistemic authority, framed in an authoritarian vs. democratic style. The main dependent variable was the influence of the counter-attitudinal message. Results show an interaction between the three variables. No effects were found among students in the upward social comparison condition in which they felt particularly incompetent. The expected interaction between style and dependence was significant in the down ward comparison condition where participants felt more competent than 1st year students. Students high in perceived epistemic dependence were more influenced by the authoritarian style than those low in epistemic dependence. The reverse tended to be true for participants exposed to the democratic style.     

Extending an information processing model of language intensity effects

The information processing model of persuasion was used as the basis for a mathematical model of language intensity effects. The model proposes that attitude change is a product of message discrepancy, source evaluation, and message strength. The results show strong support for the model. The salient source evaluation dimension was perceived trustworthiness. Language intensity enhanced attitude change directly, by acting as a multiplier of message strength, and indirectly, by increasing message discrepancy. These effects held for female as well as male sources. Path analysis indicated the presence of source evaluation heuristics. Intensity enhanced source ratings through a positively linked causal chain from intensity to dynamism to expertise to trustworthiness. Intensity also had negative effects on post‐message expertise and trustworthiness unmediated by dynamism.     

Text-based writing of low-skilled postsecondary students: relation to comprehension,self-efficacy and teacher judgments

Summarization and persuasive writing are important in postsecondary education and often require the use of source text. However, students entering college with low literacy skills often find this type of writing difficult. The present study compared predictors of performance on text-based summarization and persuasive writing in a sample of low-skilled adult students enrolled in college developmental education courses. The predictors were general reading and writing ability, self-efficacy, and teacher judgments. Both genre-specific and general dependent variables were used. A series of hierarchical regressions modeling participants’ writing skills found that writing ability and self-efficacy were predictive of the proportion of functional elements in the persuasive essays, reading ability predicted the proportion of main ideas from source text in the summaries, and teacher judgments were predictive of vocabulary usage. General reading and writing skills predicted written summarization and persuasive writing differently; the data showed relationships between general reading comprehension and text-based summarization on one hand, and between general writing skills and persuasive essay writing on the other.     

Four studies dealing with mediated persuasive messages,attitudes, and learning styles

Conclusions A fundamental assumption of the research presented above was that attitude change is an important concern of the educator, and that if attitudes are important, information on how attitudes might be formed or changed with media is needed. Four studies were conducted to examine the use of media to deliver persuasive messages. The results of the four studies presented in this article tended to support the following conclusions. First, attitudes toward educationally relevant topics, such as conservation, smoking, and disabled persons, can be modified by using persuasive messages delivered by media. Next, it appeared that some types of media may be more effective than others at delivering information designed to change attitudes. Motion pictures seem to be more effective than slides. There also seems to be sufficient evidence to warrant further investigation into the relationship between the content of persuasive messages, the media used to deliver those messages, and the learning styles of the target audience. In short, attitudes can be modified by mediated messages, and the degree of modification may be related to the characteristics of the students who view the message and to the way the message is mediated.