The role of chronic peer difficulties in the development of children's psychological adjustment problems

A longitudinal investigation was conducted to explicate how the confluence of early behavioral dispositions, relational histories, and cognitive representations of the self and others contributes to internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and loneliness. One-hundred and ninety three girls, and 206 boys were assessed annually from age 5 (kindergarten) to age 10 (Grade 4). Early aggressive behavior was related to Grade 4 maladjustment directly and indirectly through subsequent relational stressors. Significant associations emerged between chronic friendlessness and rejection and later adaptation not accounted for by concurrent relational difficulties. Self- and peer beliefs partially mediated the relation between peer difficulties and internalizing problems and loneliness. The results highlight the utility of child-by-environment models as a guide for the investigation of processes that antecede psychosocial maladjustment.     

Testosterone during Pregnancy and Gender Role Behavior of Preschool Children: A Longitudinal, Population Study

Levels of testosterone (T) and sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG) were measured in blood samples from pregnant women and related to gender role behavior in 342 male and 337 female offspring at the age of 3.5 years. Gender role behavior was assessed using the Pre–School Activities Inventory, a standardized measure on which a parent indicates the child's involvement with sex–typical toys, games, and activities. Levels of T, but not SHBG, related linearly to gender role behavior in preschool girls. Neither hormone related to gender role behavior in boys. Other factors, including the presence of older brothers or sisters in the home, parental adherence to traditional sex roles, the presence of a male partner in the home, and maternal education, did not relate to gender role behavior in this sample and did not account for the relation observed between T and behavior. Although other, unmeasured factors may explain the relation, the results suggest that normal variability in T levels prenatally may contribute to the development of individual differences in the gender role behavior of preschool girls.     

Relational Aggression, Gender, and Social-Psychological Adjustment

Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third- through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).     

Relations between Attachment, Gender, and Behavior with Peers in Preschool

40 4-year-old children and their mothers participated in a study investigating concurrent links between attachment and peer interactions. Security of attachment was assessed in the laboratory from reunion episodes following a 10-min separation. Focal child observations were carried out during indoor free play in preschool. Relations between insecure attachment and peer interactions were different for boys and girls. Insecure boys showed more aggressive, disruptive, assertive, controlling, and attention-seeking behavior than secure children. Insecure girls showed more dependent behavior than secure children but less assertive and controlling behavior, and more positive expressive behavior and compliance. Secure girls and secure boys did not differ significantly. Gender differences in social behavior may be accounted for by a subgroup of children, those classified as insecure, and the same attachment classification may lead to different predictions depending on whether the child is a boy or a girl.     

Preschool Antecedents of Internalizing Problems in Children Beginning School: The Role of Social Maladaptation

The quality of children's social adaptation in preschool was related to levels of internalizing problem behavior following transition to kindergarten. Measures of peer acceptance, social skills, and social problem-solving ability were assessed in 79 4–5 year old children, and related to teacher's ratings of anxious/withdrawn behavior assessed concurrently and one year later. Boys and girls did not differ in mean levels of symptoms, but girls tended to show higher levels of stability in internalizing problem behavior than boys. As predicted, preschool-age children with relatively high rates of internalizing problem behavior tended to manifest lower levels of social competence than others. Moreover, low levels of social competence in preschool were robust predictors of persistently high levels of internalizing problems across the two time periods.     

Multiple perceptions of children's aggression: Differences across neighborhood,age, gender,and perceiver

We investigated how overtly aggressive behavior was differentially perceived by two types of perceivers, teachers and peers, as a function of student neighborhood, gender, and grade level. Participants (N= 765) were predominantly African American students in grades 3‐5 recruited from two urban public schools in southern California. The neighborhoods surrounding the two schools differed in levels of identified violent crime and economic levels. Teachers in the community experiencing more violence perceived student behavior to be relatively less aggressive and more similar across genders than did teachers in the less violent community. Peers in the community experiencing more violent crime perceived both boys and girls to be somewhat aggressive, whereas in the less violent community, boys were perceived as aggressive more so than were girls. In general, agreement between teacher and peer perceptions was stronger for boys than for girls. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Testosterone during pregnancy and gender role behavior of preschool children: a longitudinal,population study

Levels of testosterone (T) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) were measured in blood samples from pregnant women and related to gender role behavior in 342 male and 337 female offspring at the age of 3.5 years. Gender role behavior was assessed using the Pre-School Activities Inventory, a standardized measure on which a parent indicates the child's involvement with sex-typical toys, games, and activities. Levels of T, but not SHBG, related linearly to gender role behavior in preschool girls. Neither hormone related to gender role behavior in boys. Other factors, including the presence of older brothers or sisters in the home, parental adherence to traditional sex roles, the presence of a male partner in the home, and maternal education, did not relate to gender role behavior in this sample and did not account for the relation observed between T and behavior. Although other, unmeasured factors may explain the relation, the results suggest that normal variability in T levels prenatally may contribute to the development of individual differences in the gender role behavior of preschool girls.     

The Socialization of Compassionate Behavior by Child Care Teachers

The present study examined how child care teachers' socialization practices and child characteristics jointly predict children's sympathetic-prosocial responding. A total of 25 teachers of 105 five-year-old children were observed during free play with regard to their warmth, non-directiveness and passivity-activity. The children's reactions to distress simulations in two different situations were observed. The children's inhibition and aggression were rated by teachers and parents. More compassionate behavior was shown by girls as compared to boys and by children in classes with warmer teachers; inhibited children showed tendentially less sympathetic-prosocial reactions than non-inhibited children. Furthermore, girls who showed sympathetic-prosocial reactions were rated as more aggressive than girls who did not, and boys who showed sympathetic-prosocial behavior as compared to those who did not were in classes with warmer teachers. The data suggest that child characteristics as well as socialization practices play an important role in children's interpersonal functioning. Among the teacher variables, their ability to interact in a warm, affectionate way is of central importance for the development of emotional competence in children.     

Preschool Antecedents of Internalizing Problems in Children Beginning School: The Role of Social Maladaptation

The quality of children's social adaptation in preschool was related to levels of internalizing problem behavior following transition to kindergarten. Measures of peer acceptance, social skills, and social problem-solving ability were assessed in 79 4-5 year old children, and related to teacher's ratings of anxious/withdrawn behavior assessed concurrently and one year later. Boys and girls did not differ in mean levels of symptoms, but girls tended to show higher levels of stability in internalizing problem behavior than boys. As predicted, preschool-age children with relatively high rates of internalizing problem behavior tended to manifest lower levels of social competence than others. Moreover, low levels of social competence in preschool were robust predictors of persistently high levels of internalizing problems across the two time periods.     

The Socialization of Compassionate Behavior by Child Care Teachers

The present study examined how child care teachers' socialization practices and child characteristics jointly predict children's sympathetic-prosocial responding. A total of 25 teachers of 105 five-year-old children were observed during free play with regard to their warmth, non-directiveness and passivity-activity. The children's reactions to distress simulations in two different situations were observed. The children's inhibition and aggression were rated by teachers and parents. More compassionate behavior was shown by girls as compared to boys and by children in classes with warmer teachers; inhibited children showed tendentially less sympathetic-prosocial reactions than non-inhibited children. Furthermore, girls who showed sympathetic-prosocial reactions were rated as more aggressive than girls who did not, and boys who showed sympathetic-prosocial behavior as compared to those who did not were in classes with warmer teachers. The data suggest that child characteristics as well as socialization practices play an important role in children's interpersonal functioning. Among the teacher variables, their ability to interact in a warm, affectionate way is of central importance for the development of emotional competence in children.     

The unique relation of childhood emotional maltreatment with mental health problems among detained male and female adolescents

Mounting evidence indicates that emotional maltreatment is at least as harmful as physical and sexual abuse. Notwithstanding their high occurrence among detained adolescents, the link between emotional maltreatment and mental health problems in these youths is not well researched. This study, therefore, was designed to examine the unique link between emotional maltreatment and mental health problems, with particular attention to gender differences. Well validated self-report measures of maltreatment experiences (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) and mental health problems (Youth Self Report) were completed by 341 detained adolescents (156 boys, 185 girls) aged 12 to 18 years. As expected, girls reported higher levels of maltreatment experiences and internalizing and externalizing mental health problems than boys. Blockwise multiple linear regression analyses indicated that in both genders emotional abuse was uniquely and positively associated with internalizing and externalizing mental health problems, over and above the influence of other types of maltreatment. Furthermore, sexual abuse was uniquely related with internalizing problems in girls only, whereas only in boys this type of abuse was uniquely related with externalizing problems. Detained adolescents who have been the victim of emotional abuse in combination with another type of maltreatment may be the worst subgroup in terms of mental health problems. Therefore, emotional maltreatment experiences in adolescents who offend should receive more research and clinical attention.     

Child-Mother Attachment of Six-Year-Olds and Social Competence at School

89 children and their mothers participated in a study examining the association between attachment and peer social competence. During the summer following kindergarten, quality of attachment was assessed from reunion episodes following a 1-hour separation. In the fall, measures of sociometric status, peer behavior nominations, and peer liking ratings were collected. Teachers completed liking ratings and ratings of behavior problems and competence. Consistent with longitudinal studies of infant attachment and peer relations, insecurely attached boys were less well liked by peers and teachers, were perceived as more aggressive by classmates, and were rated by teachers as less competent and as having more behavior problems than were their secure counterparts. No such associations emerged for girls. Possible explanations for unanticipated differences in the pattern of results for boys and girls are discussed.     

Emotional Behavior Problems,Parent Emotion Socialization,and Gender as Determinants of Teacher–Child Closeness

Research Findings: Drawing from a diverse community sample of 89 children, ages 4–6, their primary caregivers and teachers, this study examined the interplay of child emotional behavior problems, parent emotion socialization practices, and gender in predicting teacher-child closeness. Teachers reported on perceptions of closeness with children. Parents and teachers reported on children’s emotional behavior problems, as indexed by overanxious behavior, overt, and relational aggression. Regression models revealed that higher relational aggression related to closer teacher-child relationships for all children of parents who employed minimization as an emotion socialization practice. Similarly, higher overt aggression related to closer teacher-child relationships for girls who experienced parent minimization. An analogous pattern of results emerged, such that lower parent emotional support buffered girls against the negative effects of higher relational aggression on teacher-child closeness, whereas higher parent emotional support related to lower levels of closeness for these girls. These findings contradict prior research linking supportive emotion socialization practices (e.g., empathy, comforting) to socioemotional competence and unsupportive practices (e.g., minimization, punishment) to poor school adjustment. Practice or Policy: Findings have implications for improving children’s classroom experience by identifying parent emotion socialization and gender as contexts for understanding child emotional behavior problems in relation to teacher-child closeness.     

Children's friendship choices: Effects of school behavior

This study addresses three issues: (a) Which attributes characterize children's friendship choices? (b) Which show sex differences? (c) Which dimensions of teacher ratings of behavior contribute to peer selections? The issue of peer-teacher relatedness is addressed by obtaining peer nominations for certain attributes and independent measures of behavior that have been shown to be related to peer popularity. The results demonstrate that: (a) Peer acceptance is indexed by “Like to Sit By,” and this pattern is generally similar for boys and girls, with the exception of the dimension “Good at Games,” which characterizes boys' choosing peers. (b) The data on peer acceptance and rejection do not result in simple, bipolar dimensions, since these are not highly negatively correlated. (c) When peer nominations are assessed for possible teacher influences, an interesting sex difference emerges: girls prefer not to sit next to children whom their teachers rate as high in behavior problems.     

The Role of Emotionality and Regulation in Children's Social Functioning: A Longitudinal Study

Multiple measures of children's emotionality (emotional intensity and negative affectivity), regulation (including attentional and behavioral regulation and coping), and social functioning (teachers' reports of nonaggressive/socially appropriate behavior and prosocial/socially competent behavior; and parents' reports of problem behavior) were obtained for 6–8-year-olds. In addition, emotionality, attentional regulation, and coping were assessed 2 years previously. Social functioning was expected to be predicted by low negative emotionality and high levels of regulation. In general, the data supported the predictions, although the findings for parent reports of problem behavior were primarily for boys. Prediction of social functioning from measures of regulation and emotionality occurred primarily within a given context (school vs. home) rather than across contexts, even though there were relations across reporters within the school or home context. In addition, vagal tone, a marker of physiological regulation, was positively related to competent social functioning and emotionality/regulation for boys, but inversely related for girls.     

Conflict, aggression, and peer status: an observational study

Children's conflicts with one another during free play were observed to determine the relation between a child's rate of conflict participation and his or her rate of aggressive behavior during conflict episodes, and between these variables and the degree to which the child was liked or disliked by peers. 4 ad hoc play groups of 12 boys and 4 groups of 12 girls were formed. Each group included an equal number of first and second graders, and was observed for 10 1-hour play sessions. Sociometric interviews were conducted both before and after the set of 10 play sessions. Rate of conflict participation was positively related both to the percentage of physical (but not verbal) aggression exhibited per conflict episode and to the frequency of both types of aggression over the entire session. Although being liked by peers was not related to either conflict or aggression, being disliked was: Postsession dislike scores were primarily related to rate of conflict participation, not to the incidence of aggressive behavior. These patterns were characteristic of both boys and girls.     

Gender differences in the association between emotional maltreatment with mental,emotional, and behavioral problems in Swedish adolescents

Emotional maltreatment is a common form of child abuse with a powerful negative impact on mental health. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of emotional maltreatment on mental health and mental well-being in a general population of Swedish 12- to 13-year old girls and boys. Data was collected via self-report questionnaires in classroom settings from 1134 students. Emotional maltreatment had significant effects on mental health and mental well-being for both girls and boys. Moreover, there were significant interaction effects between gender and levels of emotional maltreatment. Girls reported decreased mental health and mental well-being at lower degrees of emotional maltreatment compared to boys. Furthermore, girls reported larger decreases in mental health in response to exposure of emotional maltreatment. For internalizing symptoms, mental well-being and psychosomatic symptoms, exposure level of emotional maltreatment seemed to magnify the gender differences. For externalizing symptoms, there were no differences between girls and boys in the group reporting no emotional maltreatment and the increase in externalizing symptoms were of equal magnitude for both genders. Given the impact of emotional maltreatment on mental health in the general population, results from this study implies that a trauma-informed perspective is necessary in understanding gender differences in mental health in early adolescence. Further research is needed in order to understand the underlying processes generating the differences in girls and boys responses to emotional maltreatment.     

Patterns of Change in Early Childhood Aggressive-Disruptive Behavior: Gender Differences in Predictions from Early Coercive and Affectionate Mother-Child Interactions

The present study focused on mother-child interaction predictors of initial levels and change in child aggressive and disruptive behavior at school from kindergarten to third grade. Aggression-disruption was measured via annual reports from teachers and peers. Ordinary least-squares regression was used to identify 8 separate child aggression trajectories, 4 for each gender: high initial levels with increases in aggression, high initial levels with decreases in aggression, low initial levels with increases in aggression, and low initial levels with decreases in aggression. Mother-child interaction measures of coercion and nonaffection collected prior to kindergarten were predictive of initial levels of aggression-disruption in kindergarten in both boys and girls. However, boys and girls differed in how coercion and nonaffection predicted change in aggression-disruption across elementary school years. For boys, high coercion and nonaffection were particularly associated with the high-increasing-aggression trajectory, but for girls, high levels of coercion and nonaffection were associated with the high-decreasing-aggression trajectory. This difference is discussed in the context of Patterson et al.'s coercion training theory, and the need for gender-specific theories of aggressive development is noted.     

Multidimensional assessment of emotional and behavioral adjustment problems of low-income preschool children: development and initial validation

The Adjustment Scales for Preschool Intervention (ASPI) was developed and tested for use in preschool programs serving low-income children. The ASPI is a measure of emotional and behavioral adjustment problems observed within routine classroom situations. Principal components analyses revealed five reliable behavioral dimensions: Aggressive, Withdrawn-Low Energy, Socially Reticent, Oppositional, and Inattentive/Hyperactive and two higher-order dimensions: Overactive and Underactive problem behaviors. Concurrent criterion validity of these dimensions was supported by multivariate indicators of peer social competence and classroom behavior problems. Age and gender analyses indicated that boys showed higher levels of overactive behavior than girls and that younger preschool children evidenced more underactive and inattentive behavior than older preschool children. Situational analyses indicated that situations requiring more initiation and self-regulation were associated with more problematic behaviors.     

Dropping out of school as a meaningful action for adolescents with social,emotional and behavioural difficulties

This study examines and discusses dropping out of school related to adolescents with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It is based on in‐depth interviews of 10 adolescents between the ages of 16 and 20, three girls and two boys with internalised problems, and two girls and three boys with extroverted behavioural problems. Given this group of students' challenges at school, the aim of this paper is to explore the narratives of this adolescent group as they relate to the significance they attach to their dropout behaviour. An additional objective is to draw attention to what these findings are likely to mean for implementing preventive practices in school. Results show that adolescents with SEBD perceive a non‐supportive classroom environment to be a primary explanation for why they are dropping out from school. Additionally, lack of support from teachers and parents and family problems are, according to the adolescents, an important reason for dropping out. Findings are discussed in relation to future implications for this group of adolescents in the context of school.