Phonological and lexical reading in Italian children with dyslexia

In this study we explore the development of phonological and lexical reading in dyslexic children. We tested a group of 14 Italian children who have been diagnosed with dyslexia and whose reading age is end of grade 1. We compared this group with a group of 70 typically developing children who have been tested for reading at the end of grade 1. For each dyslexic child we also selected a participant who was attending the same grade, was close in age, and showed typical reading development when tested with a narrative passage reading task (Cornoldi, Colpo, & Gruppo MT, 1981) for correctness and reading speed. Children in this group are “same grade controls.” We used a reading task consisting of 40 three syllables words. A qualitative and quantitative method of coding children’s naming allowed us to distinguish several components of their reading performance: the grapheme and word recognition, the size of orthographic units involved in the aloud orthography–phonology conversion, the reading process used to recognize words. The comparison of the dyslexic group with the reading age and the same grade control groups reveals different trends of delayed reading processes. Considering dyslexic children’s chronological age, lexical reading is greatly delayed. Considering dyslexic children’s reading age, the type of reading process that is more deeply delayed is phonological reading. The rate of fragmented phonological reading (i.e., a type of syllabized phonological reading) is much higher in dyslexic children compared to the reading age group, suggesting that some factors undermine the possibility of internalizing the orthography–phonology conversion and the blending processes.     

Parallels between the reading and spelling deficits of two subgroups of developmental dyslexics

The spelling errors of third graders who fit phonological andsurface profiles of developmental dyslexia were analyzed, alongwith the errors of younger (reading level matched) andchronologically age matched non-dyslexic comparison groups. InStudy 1, errors were analyzed as phonologically constrained,unconstrained, or inaccurate and as either orthographicallyacceptable or unacceptable. Study 2 extended the errorclassification system to nonword spellings. The main finding wasthat different types of dyslexics produced different types oferrors. Both studies found that children produced spelling errorsconsistent with their type of dyslexia. The phonological groupshowed poor knowledge of phoneme-grapheme correspondences,consistent with the existence of a phonological deficit. Thesurface group's spelling error profile differed from thephonological group and closely resembled the younger normalcomparison group. This pattern is consistent with other evidencethat surface dyslexia represents a general delay in acquiringliteracy skills. The studies provide converging evidence, from aspelling task, that developmental dyslexia is a non-homogeneouscategory consisting of at least two major subtypes with distinctetiologies and behavioral sequelae.     

Reading strategies in Spanish developmental dyslexics

Cross-linguistic studies suggest that the orthographic system determines the reading performance of dyslexic children. In opaque orthographies, the fundamental feature of developmental dyslexia is difficulty in reading accuracy, whereas slower reading speed is more common in transparent orthographies. The aim of the current study was to examine the extent to which different variables of words affect reaction times and articulation times in developmental dyslexics. A group of 19 developmental dyslexics of different ages and an age-matched group of 19 children without reading disabilities completed a word naming task. The children were asked to read 100 nouns that differed in length, frequency, age of acquisition, imageability, and orthographic neighborhood. The stimuli were presented on a laptop computer, and the responses were recorded using DMDX software. We conducted analyses of mixed-effects models to determine which variables influenced reading times in dyslexic children. We found that word naming skills in dyslexic children are affected predominantly by length, while in non-dyslexics children the principal variable is the age of acquisition, a lexical variable. These findings suggest that Spanish-speaking developmental dyslexics use a sublexical procedure for reading words, which is reflected in slower speed when reading long words. In contrast, normal children use a lexical strategy, which is frequently observed in readers of opaque languages.     

Spelling errors and reading fluency in compensated adult dyslexics

Generally, a person who is diagnosed as dyslexic remains diagnosably dyslexic all his/her life. However, occasionally, an individual compensates for his/her difficulties in some way, and by adulthood is no longer diagnosably dyslexic. In what ways are these compensated dyslexics different from both dyslexics and nondyslexics? We compared IQ, achievement test, and spelling error scores in adult dyslexics, adult nondyslexics, and adult compensated dyslexics (N=25) in the two studies reported here. The second study differed from the first in that the subjects were matched for age, education, IQ, and SES. In both studies, compensateds were significantly different from nondyslexics on the WRAT Spelling subtest and Reading Quotient scores. In the second study the compensateds differed from the nondyslexics in total raw score and average reading speed on Gray Oral Reading Test. On the other hand, they were different from dyslexics on all reading and spelling variables in both studies, except for PIAT Reading Comprehension in Study 2. Finally, in Study 2, the compensateds were different from both dyslexics and nondyslexics in average reading speed. In conclusion, it appears that compensation does not result from differences in IQ, education, or SES, though it may be influenced to some extent by sex. Compensateds appear very similar to nondyslexics in their reading and spelling skills; however, there appears to be a difference in the automaticity with which they apply these skills.     

A comparison of reading strategies in genetic dyslexics and children with right and left brain deficits

The reading levels and reading strategies of 43 children with genetic dyslexia, right-hemisphere lesions/dysfunction, and left-hemisphere lesions/dysfunction were retrospectively compared. Age and IQ were comparable. Only children who had a verbal or performance IQ over 90 were included in the study. Although the genetic dyslexics had a significantly higher Full Scale IQ than the other two groups, their reading level was significantly lower. This suggests that a disturbance of the normal processes of neuronal migration during fetal development may have profound effects on specific cognitive processes, without affecting others. In contrast, 50 percent of the boys with left-hemisphere deficits were disabled readers. One-third of the boys with right-hemisphere deficits were also poor readers. With one exception, the girls, who had comparable deficits, were good readers. A comparison was made between the groups in terms of reading strategies and patterns of errors.     

Differential lexical predictors of reading comprehension in fourth graders

The mental lexicon plays a central role in reading comprehension (Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). It encompasses the number of lexical entries in spoken and written language (vocabulary breadth), the semantic quality of these entries (vocabulary depth), and the connection strength between lexical representations (semantic relatedness); as such, it serves as an output for the decoding process and as an input for comprehension processes. Although different aspects of the lexicon can be distinguished, research on the role of the mental lexicon in reading comprehension often does not take these individual aspects of the lexicon into account. The current study used a multicomponent approach to examine whether measures of spoken and written vocabulary breadth, vocabulary depth, and semantic relatedness were differentially predictive of individual differences in reading comprehension skills in fourth-grade students. The results indicated that, in addition to nonverbal reasoning, short-term memory, and word decoding, the four measures of lexical quality substantially added (30 %) to the proportion of explained variance of reading comprehension (adding up to a total proportion of 65 %). Moreover, each individual measure of lexical quality added significantly to the prediction of reading comprehension after all other measures were taken into account, with written lexical breadth and lexical depth showing the greatest increase in explained variance. It can thus be concluded that multiple components of lexical quality play a role in children’s reading comprehension.     

阅读中影响词汇推理的因素分析

词汇推理是二语阅读中关键的环节之一。本文从读者因素和篇章因素两个方面对影响词汇推理的因素展开分析,读者因素从二语习得者的词汇知识、对主题的熟悉程度和二语习得者的语言水平三个主要方面来展开讨论;篇章因素主要从生词因素和语境因素这两个方面展开阐述。随着未来对词汇推理研究的深入,我们将会对词汇加工的过程有更加深入的了解。     

On the use of lexical stress in reading Spanish

This paper investigates whether or not lexical stress is used for lexical access in Spanish. A lexical decision task and a masking priming procedure were used to compare correctly-versus-incorrectly stressed words (e.g., técla-TECLA vs. teclá-TECLA). SOA (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony) was manipulated at 33, 66, 100, and 143 ms. The results showed that congruent condition was easier, but in 143 ms SOA only. Furthermore, while congruent condition did not differ from a control identity condition (e.g., tecla-TECLA) incongruent condition was slower, but in 100 and 143 ms SOA only. All these results suggest that stress affects lexical access at a late stage of lexical access processing. Reading models should be re-designed in order to include lexical stress as another phonological code which is used for reading.     

Early phonological and lexical markers of reading disabilities

Phonological and lexical characteristics of 30-month-old children’s spontaneous language samples were examined as indicators of later reading outcome. Participants were 27 children, 10 children with reading disability and 17 children without reading disability. Of the non-disabled readers, 7 were at high familial risk for reading disability, and 10 came from families with no history of reading difficulties. Children later identified as reading disabled at second grade and beyond demonstrated narrower lexical diversity and simpler phonological forms as compared to the normal reading participants. Implications of reduced phonological complexity in the productive lexicons of reading disabled children are discussed.     

An evaluation of factors influencing reading literacy across Italian 4th grade students

Questionnaire data from the PIRLS 2006 study in Italy provided a number of indices in order to summarize factors of educational context influencing reading achievement. The aim of the present paper is to study the relationships between school factors, teacher factors, family factors, student factors and reading achievement by means of multilevel regression analysis. Results show that pupils＇ attainment in reading is significantly related to： （1） home educational resources （home/student level effect）; （2） parents＇ attitudes toward reading （home/student level effect）; （3） students＇ attitudes toward reading; （4） students＇ reading self-concept; and （5） teacher career satisfaction （school/teacher level）.     

阅读课堂教学"四状态"发展性评价的研究

为促进课程理论与实践研究的健康发展，需要对发展性课程评价进行深入的研究。发展性评价是一个动态的、过程性的评价，它可以大大激发学生的内驱力，使之提高学习效率。根据《全日制义务教育语课程标准（实验稿）》的要求，语教育要全面提高学生的语素养，为学生的终身发展打下基础，使学生达成知识与技能、过程与方法、情感态度与价值观这三维目标的综合、全面的提高。在小学语教学中运用发展性评价，是落实新课标的客观要求，具有十分重要的意义。     

The cognitive profile of adult dyslexics and its relation to their reading abilities

The question of which cognitive impairments are primarily associated with dyslexia has been a source of continuous debate. This study examined the cognitive profile of Hebrew-speaking compensated adult dyslexics and investigated whether their cognitive abilities accounted for a unique variance in their reading performance. Sixty-nine young adults with and without dyslexia were administered a battery of tests measuring their reading skills and a number of cognitive abilities. The dyslexics were found to exhibit a generally poor cognitive profile, including their attention, visual working memory, naming, visual perception and speed of processing abilities, with the exception of high executive functions skills. Furthermore, naming speed, visual working memory and attention were significantly associated with decoding and fluency measures and predicted group difference after controlling for phonological skills. The findings point to the contribution of cognitive factors to decoding rate and possibly to the ability of utilizing rapid orthographic processes, thus effecting dyslexics’ reading performance.     

原型范畴理论和大学精读课堂中的词汇教学

本文以原型范畴理论为指导,阐述了词汇中的原型体现,并将原型范畴理论应用于精读课堂的词汇教学中,希望对大学的英语词汇教学给予一定的启示。     

Sound links in reading and spelling with discrepancy-defined dyslexics and children with moderate learning difficulties

This study reports the effects of a highly structuredindividually administered remedial teaching programmefor children with reading difficulties. Thephonological awareness, reading accuracy and spellingattainments of 28 children diagnosed as having low IQ(Mean IQ = 66, SD = 5.3) were compared with those of29 children diagnosed as having discrepancy defineddyslexia (Mean IQ = 95, SD = 8.4). The responsivenessto intervention of each group was also compared withteacher-referred reading-delayed children matched forinitial literacy skills. For reading accuracy andphonological awareness the dyslexic group respondedmore successfully than the low IQ group. The twogroups did not differ significantly on spelling. It isargued that the reading accuracy and phonologicalawareness results are in keeping with thephonological-core variable-difference (Stanovich &Siegel 1994) model of reading disability and that thegains of all groups on all measures were such thatthere is no obvious benefit in using IQ to selectchildren for a programme of individual teaching whichcombines reading with phonological awarenesstraining.     

维吾尔族儿童汉语发展性阅读障碍的个案报告

本文通过阅读障碍的测验工具,对吐鲁番市某小学四年级的学生艾克的阅读能力进行了测验,并结合家长和教师的访谈、课后观察等研究方法,探讨了维吾尔族儿童汉语发展性阅读障碍的表现和成因,并对教师及家长提出建议。     

Lexical stress assignment in Italian developmental dyslexia

Stress assignment to Italian polysyllabic words is unpredictable, because stress is neither marked nor predicted by rule. Stress assignment, especially to low frequency words, has been reported to be a function of stress dominance and stress neighbourhood. Two experiments investigate stress assignment in sixth-grade, skilled and dyslexic, readers. In Experiment 1, skilled readers were not affected by stress dominance. Dyslexic children, although affected by word frequency, made more stress regularisation errors on low frequency words. In Experiment 2, stress neighbourhood affected low frequency word reading irrespective of stress dominance for both skilled and dyslexic readers. Words with many stress friends were read more accurately than words with many stress enemies. It is concluded that, in assigning stress, typically developing and developmental dyslexic Italian readers are sensitive to the distributional properties of the language.     

综合性阅读教学模式的构建

本文通过对阅读教学理论和教学实践的研究,旨在讨论如何吸收多种阅读教学理论的优势,构建综合性的阅读教学模式,有效提高大学英语阅读教学的成效。     

A developmental learning strategy for early reading in a laboratory nursery school

A three-year investigation on early reading, using a developmental learning model for cognitively structuring and sequencing learning processes, was designed to test the efficacy of the model in a practical nursery school setting with a diversity of teaching styles. Using primers, guides, and materials developed by the investigator, over 80% (107) of 132 three-to five-year-old children learned to read with moderate to high fluency and interest. Pretest letter recognition skill, CA, and especially MA (but neither IQ nor sex of child) predicted success in learning. Certain analytic-integrative cognitive operations, which were built into the method, and a minimal general level (MA) of cognitive and language development appear essential to learning to read.

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Résumé Le but d'une enquête sur la question d'apprendre à lire tôt était de mettre au point un modèle de la structure et de la série d'apprentissage développemental (developmental learning) dans un contexte d'une école maternelle avec une variété de styles d'instruction. A l'aide de livres élémentaires, de guides, et de matériaux développés par l'investigateur, plus de 80 pour cent (107) de 132 enfants âgés de trois à cinq ans ont appris à lire avec facilité et avec intérêt d'assez bien à bien. L'habileté à reconnaître des lettres aux prétests, l'âge chronologique (CA), et l'âge mental (MA) (mais ni l'IQ ni le sexe de l'enfant) ont prédit le succès à apprendre. Certaines des opérations de la méthode et un niveau général de base (MA) du développement cognitif et de la langue semblent nécessaire pour apprendre à lire.

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The author wishes to express his appreciation to the many people who helped make this project possible—administrators, teachers, testers, parents, and above all the children. I would like to mention, especially, Roald Campbell, Dean of the Graduate School of Education, University of Chicago, for his administrative and financial support; Frank Lloyd, Director of the University Laboratory School; the teachers, Ann Benedict, Carol Brindley (also for test illustrations), Kay Franklin, Yvonne Lawson, Gloria Needleman, Marianna Terry, Arlene Labow, Joan Schreiner, and Masha Semkoff; to researchers, Eleanor Haspel, Julia Holt, James McGinnis, Ann Rotstein, and particularly Muriel Lo for the analysis of data; to Jane Hill (for editorial assistance); to Joyce Flow for her excellent typing; and my three daughters, Josephine, Monique, and Velia for illustrating the primers as only children can.     

The impact of lexical inferencing strategies on second language reading proficiency

Abstract. This study focuses on the source of reading problems of English as a second language learners at the high school level. The results indicate that while reading comprehension is impacted by level of receptive vocabulary knowledge, the ability to select and implement word-appropriate lexical inferencing strategies can compensate for low receptive vocabularies in relation to the demands of the text. The ability to make this selection, however, implies not only sensitivity to word structure, but also the ability to implement morphological analysis in conjunction with contextual guessing, where appropriate. These findings suggest that the development of English as a second language reading proficiency may be accelerated by acquisition of the meanings of the most productive affixes of English in conjunction with instruction in the principles of morphological analysis.