Writing and pseudo‐writing from Internet‐based sources: implications for learning and assessment

In recent years, plagiarism has been on the increase across the Western world. This article identifies Internet access as a contributory cause of this trend and addresses the implications of readily available Internet sources for the teaching and assessment of writing in schools. The basis for the article is a previous study showing a wide incidence of plagiarism in the Internet‐based writing of students in three classes at upper secondary school level in Norway. I relate the students' choices to writing as a cognitive process and as a cultural practice. My basic assumption is that the students' writing is work. It is this work we have in mind when we relate writing to learning and when we assess students' skills on the basis of their written texts. Access to the Internet changes the premises for this work because writing can be replaced by ‘pseudo‐writing’. ‘Pseudo‐writing’ is a work reducing writing practice, which neither excludes nor coincides with what we traditionally associate with plagiarism in schools. The main point in this article is that when students have access to the Internet during essay writing, the result is unavoidably a product of both writing and pseudo‐writing. Internet access thus leads to greater uncertainty about the role writing plays in student learning and makes it more difficult to take written assignments into account in assessing students' school results and effort.     

The effectiveness of digital game‐based vocabulary learning: A framework‐based view of meta‐analysis

This study presents the results of a meta‐analytic study about the effects of digital game‐based learning (DGBL) on vocabulary. The results of the study showed that the effects of DGBL on vocabulary learning may vary with game design features (Q = 5.857, df = 1, p = .016), but not with learners' age (Q = 0.906, df = 1, p = .341) or linguistic background (Q = 0.0001, df = 1, p = .994). In light of the research findings, Csikszentmihalyi's ( 1990 ) Flow Theory was adopted to theorize the role of game design in DGBL. It is proposed that a hierarchy should exist on the “challenge” axis in the Flow Theory, with adventure‐oriented games above non‐adventure‐based games along the “challenge” axis. The theoretical underpinning is that the dynamic equilibrium between challenge and abilities can function independently of the effects of learners' age and linguistic background.     

The effect of learning style on preference for web‐based courses and learning outcomes

As the number of courses offered online increases rapidly, it is important for teachers and institutions to identify specific learner characteristics of successful online students. This paper reports on a study that compared an online group of freshmen computer science majors with an equivalent on‐campus group to find if their individual learning styles play a role in the selection of course delivery mode (online or face to face) and in their academic achievement. No significant statistical differences were detected in learning styles and learning performance between the two groups. Implications for teaching practice and design of learning activities that resulted from this study are discussed.     

The effect of inquiry‐based learning on the achievement goal‐orientation of grade 10 physical sciences learners at township schools in South Africa

Due to apartheid policies, Black African learners in South Africa have been severely disadvantaged in school science. Despite policy changes to redress these historical imbalances, Black African learners continue to underperform in science. Previous research has identified motivation as a key factor that impacts performance. Achievement goal orientation is a construct of motivation that explains learning behaviour. In an attempt to address the problem of learner motivation, this study investigated the effect of inquiry‐based learning on the achievement goal‐orientation of grade 10 physical sciences learners at historically disadvantaged township schools in South Africa. In South Africa, the term “township” usually refers to under‐developed urban areas that were historically created for “non‐whites” during the apartheid era. The findings showed that the experiment group of learners who experienced inquiry‐based learning significantly gained in mastery goal orientation, while the control that were taught through a traditional direct didactic approach had an insignificant change in their mastery goal orientation. From these results, it can be concluded that inquiry‐based learning does support a mastery goal orientation in learners. This orientation is regarded as desirable because mastery approach goals could support positive outcomes in conceptual learning, leading to an improvement in science achievement of learners.     

Self‐regulated learning ability of Chinese distance learners

This study reports on self‐regulated learning (SRL) of Chinese distance learners by using a structured SRL scale. SRL of adult and lifelong learners is a well‐researched area, though its application within distance education is a new area of investigation. Open and distance learning lean heavily on self‐learning and self‐learning resources, though interaction at designated learning centers and online learning platforms is occasionally offered. In China, there is still persistence of the age‐old teacher‐centric model of teaching‐learning; and, within distance education offered largely by the radio and television universities, there is insistence for regular tuition classes at designated branch schools. At the backdrop of understanding and enhancing SRL of Chinese distance learners, the authors took up this research to find out the elements and levels of SRL ability among Chinese distance learners. Based on factor analysis (on 357 students for item analysis and on 600 distance learners for structural validity of the initial 117‐item scale), a standardized 54‐item Self‐regulated Learning Ability Scale was finalized and administered on a random sample of 2738 undergraduate learners (1630 males and 1108 females) from the Open Distance Education Centre of Beijing Normal University, P.R. China, doing an online course during 2009–10. The sample came from either senior high school (grade 12) or junior college (grade 14). Data on four dimensions of SRL—planning, control, regulating and evaluation—were analyzed using ‘t’ test for variables of gender, level of education and age. Results indicated that all the participants had above‐average levels of SRL in all the four dimensions of planning, control, regulating and evaluation. In so far as gender was concerned, male distance learners were better in SRL than female distance learners, especially in control (ie, content and resources) and all the evaluation dimensions. Though no age difference was found, students from junior colleges had better planning, regulating and evaluating abilities than those who came from senior high schools. These results have been discussed in the context of current changes in Chinese distance/online education and also in relation to the age‐old Chinese culture of learning. The results will also have implications for designing distance and online learning generally.     

网络环境下基于数据挖掘技术的学习指导模型

针对学生在网络学习环境中面临的问题，提出了在网络环境下基于数据挖掘技术的学习指导模型，该模型将数据挖掘技术用在了对学生学习信息库的挖掘，力图发现学生学习的薄弱环节，进而得到可以指导学生学习的策略．由于采用了数据挖掘技术，使得系统具有智能特性，让学生在学习过程中，可以得到动态的、及时的帮助，以解决在网络环境下，没有老师的现场指导，而学生需要得到及时帮助的问题。     

Personalized recommendation of learning material using sequential pattern mining and attribute based collaborative filtering

Material recommender system is a significant part of e-learning systems for personalization and recommendation of appropriate materials to learners. However, in the existing recommendation algorithms, dynamic interests and multi-preference of learners and multidimensional-attribute of materials are not fully considered simultaneously. Moreover, these algorithms cannot effectively use the learner’s historical sequential patterns of material accessing in recommendation. For addressing these problems and improving the accuracy and quality of recommendation, a new material recommender system framework based on sequential pattern mining and multidimensional attribute-based collaborative filtering (CF) is proposed. In the sequential pattern based approach, modified Apriori and PrefixSpan algorithms are implemented to discover latent patterns in accessing of materials and use them for recommendation. Leaner Preference Tree (LPT) is introduced to take into account multidimensional-attribute of materials, and learners’ rating and model dynamic and multi-preference of learners in the multidimensional attribute-based CF approach. Finally, the recommendation results of two approaches are combined using cascade, weighted and mixed methods. The proposed method outperforms the previous algorithms on the classification accuracy measures and the learner’s real learning preference can be satisfied accurately according to the real-time up dated contextual information.     

Transfer of learning: paradoxes for learners

There are three kinds of transfer: from prior knowledge to learning, from learning to new learning, and from learning to application. The central thesis of this chapter is that all three should start from the dilemmas or paradoxes learners may have when trying to reach transfer. Six of these are described. They are finding relevant prior knowledge; the paradox of tacit knowledge; using relevant prior knowledge while learning; recognizing relevant situations and conditions; the paradox of near transfer and far transfer; and the paradoxical “what” of transfer, including learning to learn. In order to optimize transfer one needs to help learners solve the problems they encounter and to find ways out of the various dilemmas and paradoxes. For the three kinds of transfer exemplary studies are described that illustrate the kinds of solutions developed and their effectiveness.     

A learning progression for energy in socio‐ecological systems

This article reports on our work of developing a learning progression focusing on K‐12 students' performances of using energy concept in their accounts of carbon‐transforming processes in socio‐ecological systems. Carbon‐transforming processes—the ecological carbon cycle and the combustion of biomass and fossil fuels—provide all of the energy for living systems and almost 90% of the energy for human economic activities. Energy, as a crosscutting concept across major disciplines, is a tool for analysis that uses the principle of energy conservation to constrain and connect accounts of processes and systems. Drawing on ideas from cognitive linguistics, the history of science, and research on students' energy conceptions, we identify two crucial practices that both scientists and students engage in when accounting for carbon‐transforming processes: association and tracing. Using association and tracing as progress variables, we analyzed student accounts of carbon‐transforming processes in 48 clinical interviews and 3,903 written tests administered to students from fourth grade through high school. Based on our analysis we developed a Learning Progression Framework that describes a progression from accounts that use energy as an ephemeral “force” that enables actors to make events happen to energy as a scientific tool for analysis. Successful students developed a sense of necessity with respect to accounts of carbon‐transforming processes—a sense that energy MUST be conserved and degraded in every individual process and in the system as a whole. This level of success was achieved by <3% of the students in our sample. Implications for science standards, curriculum, and instruction are discussed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 1149–1180, 2012     

A learning progression for water in socio‐ecological systems

Providing model‐based accounts (explanations and predictions) of water and substances in water moving through environmental systems is an important practice for environmental science literacy and necessary for citizens confronting global and local water quantity and quality issues. In this article we present a learning progression for water in environmental systems for students in elementary through high school grades. We investigated student accounts of water and substances in water moving through atmospheric, surface, and soil/groundwater systems, including human‐engineered components of these systems. Using an iterative process of model design, assessment, and interpretation, we identified four levels of achievement in student reasoning. Levels 1 and 2 force‐dynamic accounts explain movement of water as interactions between natural tendencies of water and countervailing powers. Level 3 incomplete school science accounts put events in order and trace water and substance along multiple pathways that include hidden and invisible components. Only Level 4 qualitative model‐based accounts include driving forces and constraining factors to explain or predict where water and substances in water move in given situations. The majority of high school students on average provide accounts between levels 2 and 3. We discuss the significance of these results for citizen participation in addressing common water issues. We end with suggestions for how the water learning progression can be used to inform changes to curricula, assessment, and instruction to support students in achieving level 4 performance. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 843–868, 2012     

The reverse modality effect: Examining student learning from interactive computer‐based instruction

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of modality on learning from multimedia instruction. This study utilized a factorial between‐subject design to examine the effects of modality on student learning outcomes, study patterns and mental effort. An interactive computer‐presented diagram was developed to teach the places of articulation in human speech. A total of 151 undergraduate students at a large southwestern university in USA participated in this study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two modality conditions (ie, written text and spoken text). Data were obtained through surveys, student logs and knowledge tests. Findings revealed a reverse modality effect, wherein participants who studied with written text outperformed those who studied with spoken text.     

Effects of cognitive learning strategies for Korean learners: A meta-analysis

The purpose of this study was to synthesize the cognitive learning strategy intervention studies conducted in Korea between 1990 and 2006, using meta-analysis. By means of pre-established systematic criteria, 50 articles were selected and 97 effect sizes were calculated. Effect size was calculated using ‘the Cohen’s d’ (Cooper &; Hedges, 1994). The research questions of the present study were as follows: (a) Are cognitive learning strategies generally effective? (b) What type of cognitive learning strategy is most effective? (c) Are effect sizes of different types of cognitive learning strategies different according to the applied domains, grade levels, and achievement levels? The results of the study indicate that, first of all, the overall cognitive learning strategies (97 ESs) yielded a large effect size (ESsm=.96), which was not homogenous (Q=55.19,p <.05). Thus, in each subcategory of learners’ characteristics and applied domains, we calculated effect sizes and conducted the test of homogeneity separately. Except for grade level, the effect sizes were generally homogenous in each subcategory. The findings revealed that cognitive strategies had large effect sizes (.82–1.69). For average achieving students as well as underachieving students (Learning Disabilities), cognitive learning strategies were very effective (.82–1.42). The effect of cognitive learning strategies was very large in terms of students in all grades (1.02–1.34), except for middle school students (.70). Lastly, the implications for the application of different cognitive learning strategies were discussed.     

Calling Iranian learners of L2 English: effect of gloss type on lexical retention and reading performance under different learning conditions

This study sought to compare how three different gloss types (text–picture, text–audio and text–picture–audio) affected English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. The study also compared how results on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition differed across three learning conditions (i.e., incidental, intentional and explicit instruction). A between‐groups design was employed with four groups (N = 135) of Iranian university learners of L2 English. The participants (with upper‐intermediate proficiency level) read English texts. Written recall and multiple‐choice questions were used to measure reading comprehension; vocabulary knowledge scale (VKS) and contextualized vocabulary knowledge test (CVKT) were used to assess vocabulary acquisition. Results of statistical analyses revealed that while the text–picture–audio gloss type consistently resulted in better vocabulary learning and reading comprehension, the learning conditions varied in terms of their immediate and delayed effect on vocabulary and reading scores. This study suggests that learner performances across gloss types are condition specific and provides both pedagogical and theoretical implications. What is already known about this topic

• Electronic glosses foster reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition.
• There are different positions about the effectiveness of form focused instruction in grammar, with the focus on forms approach having a higher acceptable rate in SLA. But, this issue has been rarely researched in vocabulary acquisition.

What this paper adds

• This study supports the complementary nature of dual annotations in vocabulary learning and reading comprehension.
• This study extends the issue of form focused instruction to vocabulary learning by comparing the incidental, intentional and incidental–intentional learning orientations.
• This study evaluates the interaction between the multiple gloss types and the learning orientations.

Implications for theory, policy or practice

• This study provides both pedagogical and theoretical implications.