The Teaching/Learning Relationship in the First Years of School: Some Revolutionary Implications of Vygotskya's Theory

During the last twenty years, Vygotsky's theory has increasingly been cited when considering aspects of early education. Most commonly, however, a single concept (the zone of proximal development) has been used to represent the theory, and treated as synonymous with the view that a teacher's job is to scaffold the children's learning. By contrast, in this paper we stress the fact that Vygotsky's theory is one that requires attending to what individuals bring to interactions, what goes on during those interactions, and the cultural contexts (as they have developed over historical time) of the individuals involved. Equally important, we stress that Vygotsky's view of interactions between teachers and children involves the concept of obuchenie, a Russian term meaning both teaching and learning, rather than scaffolded instruction. To take this position seriously involves making dramatic changes in the process of education as typically practiced. For this reason Vygotsky's theory has revolutionary implications, examples of which we discuss in the final section.     

How Instruction Influences Conceptual Development: Vygotsky's Theory Revisited

Although current interpretations of Vygotsky's theory largely assume that instruction pushes development, the issue of how this occurs has yet to be clarified. For example, the notion of “zone of proximal development” has aroused strong disagreement, and the common conceptualization of the notion of “nonspontaneous concept” has been widely recognized as unsatisfactory. This article proposes a new interpretation of Vygotsky's theory of cultural development, closely based on Vygotsky's writings, that clarifies why and how instruction pushes development and resignifies the notions of zone of proximal development and nonspontaneous concept. The article introduces important nuances into the widely held interpretations of Vygotsky's theory and discusses some of the implications of these nuances for research and practice in educational psychology.     

Early Childhood Educare: Seeking a theoretical framework in Vygotsky's work

This paper argues that there is no meaningful distinction between care and education for young children so that the early childhood field should be renamed early childhood educare. The predominant theoretical framework for early childhood philosophy and curriculum has been Piaget's theory. Piaget's theory describes development as determining current cognitive competence and influencing what children are capable of learning. Children are seen as natural scientists who investigate the world and thereby broaden their understanding. Teachers are expected to stand back and provide resources for children's autonomous learning but not to interfere with it. The paper argues that Vygotsky's theory as applied to the responsive social contexts provided in early childhood educare should be given more consideration because it gives more attention to the importance of the social and cultural context on children's thinking than Piaget. Vygotsky saw learning as driving development and the development of thinking as a shared process rather than an individual one. Children are capable of far more competent performance when they have assistance from adults in their zone of proximal development so adults take a reactive and participatory role. The paper discusses the role of language, the internalisation of interpersonal processes, the importance of intersubjectivity, the need for scaffolding in the zone of proximal development, and the role of both adult and peer tutors according to the author's interpretation of Vygotsky's theory.     

Leadership to Build Learning Communities

Lev Vygotsky's revolutionary ideas have extended knowledge on the process of education—in particular, on mediating learning through language—for over 40 years. The zone of proximal development strengthened a new paradigm for learning and instruction, one which others, such as Bruner, formulated into the concept of scaffolding. Action research conducted in a reading methods course led to systematic restructuring based on Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective by means of an instructional sequence titled the Scaffolded Model.     

Second language learning in the zone of proximal development: A revolutionary experience

In this paper we provide empirical support from L₂ learning for Vygotsky's claim that development and performance in mental systems is not a smooth linear process, but simultaneously entails forward movement and regression, or what some L₂ researchers refer to as backsliding. After considering the specifics of Vygotsky's argument, we show that because learning arises in “zones of proximal development”, regression is manifested not only in the linguistic features of the second language produced by learners, but also in the frequency and quality of help as other-regulation negotiated between learners and experts. Although other L₂ researchers have recognized the appearance of regression among learners, we propose a different theoretical status for the phenomenon than is currently the case.     

Play as the Leading Activity of the Preschool Period: Insights from Vygotsky,Leont'ev,and Bakhtin

Cultural-historical psychology identifies play as the leading activity in preschool development. Vygotsky's (1967, 1978) seminal work outlined two categories of leading influences: play makes a foundational contribution to the development of semiotic mediation, and it involves active appropriation of social roles and rules and other integral aspects of social organization. Leont'ev's (1981) concept of appropriation and Bakhtin's (1981) concepts of heteroglossia and ideological becoming are used to elaborate and extend Vygotsky's original work, particularly with regard to creativity in preschool play. The paper concludes with a consideration of the pedagogical implications of the cultural-historical view on play, including the use of play to cultivate understanding of the arbitrary nature of signs and the appropriation of the social roles and organizational patterns of society.     

Les capacités humaines sont des constructions sociales. Essai sur la théorie de Vygotsky

In Vygotsky's theory, the differentiation between genetic psychology and psychology of education has no sense. This thesis is proven by the exposition of some basic psychological principles governing Vygotsky's approach to psychology. Mediation of the psychological processes is the central fact of Vygotsky's conception; socially elaborated systems of signs are the means of mediation; these allow a control of the processes of behavior. Internalization and sociogenesis, which derive directly from this conception, are two inseparable aspects of the same process of construction of the different psychological capacities; on a certain level of development, they lead to a quasi-social behavior of the subjet towards himself. The differenciation of functions is the main form of construction of new capacities: the analyses of the development of language is a good illustration of this principle. Through the analysis of Vygotsky's theory one can discover some important guide lines for research in psychology.     

Assessment of—or in—the zone of proximal development

Two perspectives on assessment are suggested by different interpretations of Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The first perspective—developed in the field of dynamic assessment research—considers that it is possible to measure the learner's ZPD as an individual trait showing a certain stability across instructional settings. The second perspective draws on work on interactive formative assessment integrated in classroom instruction. In this approach, assessment intervenes in the ZPD created by a learner's on-going interactions with a given instructional setting. Critical appraisal is given to the way in which each perspective interprets Vygotsky's writings.     

Rousseau and the image of 'modern education'

The concept of 'modern education' is directly connected with Rousseau's theory of education. It is often said that Rousseau 'founded' modern education, or at least was its most influential predecessor. The paper argues that 'modern learning' or 'experimental education' was discussed within the late-17 th century 'quarrel of the ancients and moderns'. After this historically important debate, education and learning could be connected with the open experience of modern science. When compared to this tradition, Rousseau was not a modern writer. His concept of education has been far too paradoxical to serve as a groundwork for what was considered to be 'modern' or 'progressive education' at the end of the 19 th century. The image of progressive education was strengthened by child psychology, especially by theories of learning and development. Rousseau's stoic concept of 'negative education' is in many respects the opposite to such a viewpoint.     

A Vygotskian perspective on parent–child talk during iPad story sharing

This study explores the themes in the talk of two mothers and daughters as they share a self‐created story with an iPad app. Vygotsky's theory of learning is applied to inform a thematic analysis and help interpret the learning potential within the observed parent–child exchanges. A deductive–inductive thematic analysis identified three recurring themes in the parent–child talk: realistic fiction, scaffolding variations, and engaged players and objects of ‘play’. The themes suggested that Vygotsky's theory has particular relevance in exploring the learning processes facilitated by the iPad app. In addition, however, post‐Vygotskian theoretical frameworks were helpful in capturing the dynamic co‐construction of the authentic and multimedia stories parents and children shared.     

The learning society as itself: lifelong learning,individualization of learning,and beyond education

This paper considers the bottom-up vision of the learning society. Unlike the top-down approach, the bottom-up approach does not start by specifying the purposes of learning which should direct the development of the learning society, but from observing interactions among learning individuals as agents. While in the relevant literature and policies much attention has been devoted to certain positions on how one's learning should respond to current change, this paper proposes that when considering the establishment and development of the learning society we should not dismiss the understanding of how individuals, concrete beings, act as they learn, since how they do so has an impact on the way in which learning is structured. This bottom-up approach has to be taken into account, for it helps us to come near to what is embedded in learning practices, and to react pertinently when we need to come to terms with substantive issues for the development of the learning society. Three aspects—lifelong learning, the individualization of learning, and learning beyond education—serve as the context for understanding what characterize the practices of the learning society.     

Children's Engagement Within the Preschool Classroom and Their Development of Self-Regulation

This study used an observational measure to examine how individual children's engagement with teachers, peers, and tasks was associated with gains in self-regulation. A sample of 341 preschoolers was observed, and direct assessments and teacher reports of self-regulation were obtained in the fall and spring of the preschool year. Research Findings: Children's positive engagement with teachers was related to gains in compliance/executive function, and children's active engagement with tasks was associated with gains in emotion regulation across the year. Engaging positively with teachers or peers was especially supportive of children's gains in task orientation and reductions in dysregulation. Practice or Policy: Results are discussed in relation to Vygotsky's developmental theory, emphasizing that psychological processes are developed in the context of socially embedded interactions. Systematically observing how a child interacts with peers, teachers, and learning tasks in the preschool classroom has the potential to inform the creation of professional development aimed at supporting teachers in fostering individual children's development within the early education environment.     

OP-ED

There is a general consensus that too many US children are entering school without essential readiness skills. However, there is a lack of consensus as to what constitutes readiness and a corresponding lack of consensus as to the type of early childhood experience that is most likely to prepare children for academic success. This paper offers a perspective, grounded in theory and practice, on issues of readiness and education during the preschool and kindergarten years. This perspective involves a view of human development that stresses the role of adult involvement in young children's learning and emphasizes the preschool years as atime for building cognitive skills that will serve as essential foundations for later academic learning. Images drawn from practice in Korean early childhood classrooms illustrate how teacherdirected activities may foster preschool children's development of these essential cognitive foundations in a developmentally appropriate manner.     

Bridging Pedagogies: Drama,Multiliteracies, and the Zone of Proximal Development

This article examines how one educator embraced Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) while using drama to scaffold learning about Dr. Seuss's The Lorax for first-grade students. This learning event is interpreted with reference to the ZPD and the New London Group's pedagogy of -multiliteracies. The author asserts the importance of considering both old and new pedagogical -theories when approaching present practice.     

DEVELOPING PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE THROUGH TEACHER‐WRITTEN CASE STORIES

Abstract

With more children spending the greater part of their waking hours in preschool settings today than they did years ago, teachers play an even more critical role in providing daily literacy experiences that many children of earlier generations received at home. The article focuses on the critical role that preschool teachers play in supporting children's early literacy development and presents an instructional framework to help guide early literacy teaching. The framework is based on Vygotsky's learning theory, which emphasizes the nature and importance of social interactions in instruction, particularly between adult and child. We present activity‐embedded assessments that preschool teachers can use to observe and document children's emerging literacy concepts and skills, and describe key teaching actions that scaffold learning of new concepts. In closing, we offer five principles to guide preschool teachers in planning and implementing appropriate activities to promote young children's literacy development. Sample documentation forms are included in the appendices.     

Rethinking reflective practice in professional lifelong learning using learning metaphors

Studies relating to reflection and reflective practice in learning, specifically workplace learning, have gradually emerged from within the professional education literature. Evidence has seen a shift from an individualistic to a more collective approach to reflection, in an attempt to move away from viewing learning as an individual action. Simultaneously attention has been given to socio-cultural theories which view learning as social practice inherent in our everyday lives, including work. This paper aims to engage in the current debate regarding the polarised conceptualisations of reflective practice within the context of professional learning. Drawing on this debate, as well as on learning metaphors, this paper proposes that professionals should engage in collective reflective practice for both individual and organisational development within workplaces; locations which could be seen as increasingly ambiguous and unpredictable throughout individuals’ working lives. Hence, we need to rehabilitate and extend some of the key aspects of the traditional concept of reflective practice to accommodate the changing terrain of professional practice within an individual professional's lifelong learning.     

Case studies of teachers' understandings of the pedagogy of classroom talk: some critical moments explored

This case study research is informed by Vygotsky's view that talk is essential to organise our thoughts and extend our thinking and that, as Barnes suggested, the teacher needs to use the social situation effectively in the classroom to promote talk for learning. This article focuses on pedagogy and teachers' understandings of how talk works in the classroom, as I sought to illuminate teachers' intuitions and insights and their views of what they find challenging in organising classroom talk. Three case studies of ‘critical moments’ in a lesson suggest that teacher knowledge about talk is located in concrete practices. The three teachers viewed a recorded lesson and chose a moment they defined as ‘critical’ because the moment helped them to learn something about the way they use talk in the classroom. They then discussed this moment with me. These collaborative but critically evaluative processes are particularly useful for exploring and probing teachers' knowledge about talk for learning, an area of pedagogy that has proved so resistant to change over quite a long period. These three teachers suggest that such talk is becoming more marginal under the impact of performativity and the new cultural restorationist English curriculum.     

Some Questions (and a Few Answers) About Y&ooline;dai Mnemonics: A Reply to Kilpatrick,Pressley and Levin

Lev Vygotsky's contribution to defectology became a significant part of his overall theoretical legacy. Within his general theory of child development, he created a comprehensive and practically oriented paradigm of educating children with special needs. This article discusses the following topics' relevance to contemporary special education and school/educational psychology: Vygotsky's views on the nature of handicapping conditions in children, the principles of psychoeducational evaluation of the disabled, and the issue of the compensation and education of children with sensory and cognitive impairments.     

Embodiment and the Risk of Reading

In this article, Anders Öhman discusses Gert J. J. Biesta's concept of the risk of education and what it could mean for the study of literature in the classroom. The article's point of departure is Bakhtin's theory of the utterance. The utterance, for Bakhtin, has to be embodied, that is, it has to be governed by a purpose: it must be uttered by someone, or at least the reader or listener must imagine that it is uttered by someone that speaks with an intent. A grammatical sentence that is not an utterance has no author and no direction or intention; it is therefore abstract and belongs to no one. Reading on the Internet, or digital reading, often consists of short passages or text fragments for which it is difficult to identify an author. These fragments are not embodied and thus the reader does not feel addressed by the text. Although Biesta does not reckon with Bakhtin's theory, his critique of “strong education” provides an analysis that runs along similar lines. According to Biesta, the notion of strong education and what he calls the “language of learning” regard knowledge as free of values thus rendering it abstract. In bringing together Bakhtin's and Biesta's analyses, Öhman concludes that in order for knowledge to elicit valuation, it must first become embodied; this process, in turn, is important to creating the conditions necessary for a dialogue to occur between the content of teaching and the students.     

A conceptual framework for understanding children as agents in the transition from home to kindergarten

The transition from home to kindergarten, for most children, is the first and major ecological transition in their educational life. Kindergarten is the first educational setting in which children make sense about ‘school’ as a place to learn and about themselves as ‘pupils’. In this transition, children cross a cultural boundary from home to kindergarten and, in fact, they commute between the two cultural settings. In Vygotsky's view, children are active culture learners. How they cope with, and adapt to, the novel kindergarten is crucial to their ‘pupil career’ in their life‐long learning. Thus, this paper aims to provide early childhood education professionals with a framework to understand children as agents in the transition from home to kindergarten. This paper begins with a review of the concept of transition. It then presents a conceptual framework of the understanding of children as agents in the transition from home to kindergarten. Major elements of the conceptual framework are derived from sociocultural theory, and analyses of ‘rites of passage’ and ‘pupil career’. This highlights the relationships between layers of context, stages of transition, and adaptation outcomes.