Second Generation Research on the Effectiveness of Early Intervention

This commentary discusses the program of research carried out by the Utah State Early Intervention Research Institute (EIRI) in the context of the characteristics associated with second generation research in early intervention. Specifically, the series of EIRI research studies focused on the three program features of age of start, intensity of intervention, and parent participation. This commentary provides an evaluation of these program features in terms of scientific quality, specificity of the research, and consistency with contemporary developmental/ecological approaches. Directions for future research are noted, and these include: greater emphasis on establishing expectations for outcomes derived from developmental models, multisite studies to permit more effective specificity analyses, and emphasis on identifying the characteristics of children and families who are at greatest risk of not responding to prevailing early intervention services and supports.     

Teaching Object-related Play Skills to Preschool Children with Developmental Concerns

The distinction between general early childhood education and special education on the issue of the essential characteristics of play, developmental appropriateness, and an emphasis on teacher directiveness, external contingencies, and correct products may help explain the relatively small body of work focused on teaching preschool children with developmental concerns how to appropriately engage in play with toys. Appropriately designed intervention is not only compatible with the concept of play, many children require intervention to support their continued development. The purpose of this paper is to explore the applied research in which object-related play skills of preschool children with developmental concerns are enhanced through intervention strategies. Guidelines for teaching toy play will be presented and strategies to promote generalisation and maintenance will be discussed.     

Comparative Evaluations of Early Intervention Alternatives: A Response to Commentaries by Guralnick and Telzrow

This article responds to two commentaries by Guralnick (1993) and Telzrow (1993) published in the October 1993 issue of Early Education and Development. The commentaries addressed the six longitudinal, comparative studies from the Early Intervention Research Institute's (EIRI's) investigations of the effects and costs of early intervention for children with disabilities. In this response to their thoughtful critique, we clarify details of our research design and procedures that may have been unclear. We also discuss the specificity and consistency with contemporary developmental/ecological issues raised by Guralnick We contend that the interventions investigated address important questions about age at start, intensity, and parent involvement with which today's service providers contend. We give our opinion on how the results of these studies should be interpreted, and emphasize their implications for other second-generation early intervention research.     

Comparative Evaluations of Early Intervention Alternatives: A Response to Commentaries by Guralnick and Telzrow

This article responds to two commentaries by Guralnick (1993) and Telzrow (1993) published in the October 1993 issue of Early Education and Development. The commentaries addressed the six longitudinal, comparative studies from the Early Intervention Research Institute's (EIRI's) investigations of the effects and costs of early intervention for children with disabilities. In this response to their thoughtful critique, we clarify details of our research design and procedures that may have been unclear. We also discuss the specificity and consistency with contemporary developmental/ecological issues raised by Guralnick We contend that the interventions investigated address important questions about age at start, intensity, and parent involvement with which today's service providers contend. We give our opinion on how the results of these studies should be interpreted, and emphasize their implications for other second-generation early intervention research.     

Formative Evaluation of the Early Development Instrument: Progress and Prospects

This article is a commentary for the special issue on the Early Development Instrument (EDI), a community tool to assess children's school readiness and developmental outcomes at a group level. The EDI is administered by kindergarten teachers, who assess their kindergarten students on 5 developmental domains: physical health and well-being, social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive development, and communication skills and general knowledge. In this commentary, the author critically integrates research findings from projects that used the EDI to assess children's development at a community or population level, as presented in the research articles of this special issue. In addition, the EDI is situated in the school readiness literature, and forthcoming research directions and challenges that will largely determine the risk-benefit ratio of the EDI are discussed in regard to the following 3 topics: the advantages and limitations of using teacher judgment for the EDI, the establishment of the EDI's reliability and validity at a group (community, population) level, the EDI's effectiveness for intervention and program evaluation and measurement.     

Challenges in identifying target skills for math disability screening and intervention

Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (in this series) review their research on math difficulties, with an emphasis on applying current knowledge to inform practices of early identification and intervention. On a practical level, educators are in dire need of empirically based screening and intervention tools. From a scientific perspective, it is important to recognize the need to clearly define what we seek to identify and remediate, and to acknowledge that we are currently far from achieving this goal despite recent advances in the field. Among the studies reviewed by Gersten et al., as well as other studies by several other researchers, there is much variability in how mathematics difficulties are defined and measured, and even in the terms used to refer to them. I address the degree of consensus and controversy currently characterizing the state of math learning disabilities research, with an emphasis on the usefulness of a developmental perspective in appraising this young field.     

Effects of early education programs and practices on the development and learning of dual language learners: A review of the literature

This article describes the results of a comprehensive review of the research literature from 2000 to 2011 evaluating the effects of early care and education practices on the developmental outcomes of dual language learners (DLLs) from birth through 5 years of age. Across 25 studies that met inclusion criteria, study samples consisted primarily of Latino or Spanish-speaking children 3–5 years of age enrolled in center-based programs. The analysis focused on features of the early education programs and practices (intensity and language of instruction) and research methods (sampling, research designs) in relation to child outcomes for the various types of research interventions evaluated in these studies (center-based programs, professional development, curricula, and instructional strategies). On the basis of a few large-scale scientifically sound studies, the review found at least some evidence to suggest that DLLs benefitted from attending widely available, well regulated programs such as Head Start and public pre-k, particularly with respect to improving language and literacy skills. However, because the extant research has not systematically accounted for the separate effects of language of instruction versus type of intervention, very little can be concluded about how these factors contribute to the positive main effects of these interventions.     

A longitudinal study of effects of a developmental teacher preparation program on elementary prospective teachers’ mathematics beliefs

The universal emphasis in mathematics education on teaching and learning for understanding can require substantial paradigmatic shifts for many elementary school teachers. Consequently, a pressing goal of teacher preparation programs should be the facilitation of these changes during program experiences. This longitudinal, mixed methods study presents a thorough investigation of the effects of a distinctive teacher preparation program on important constructs related to prospective teacher preparedness to teach mathematics for understanding, including mathematics pedagogical and teaching efficacy beliefs, mathematics anxiety, and specialized content knowledge for teaching mathematics. The results indicate that the programmatic features experienced by the prospective teachers in this study, including a developmental two-course mathematics methods sequence and coordinated developmental field placements, provided a context supporting teacher change. These shifts are interpreted through the nature and timing of the experiences in the program and a model of teacher change processes. The findings provide insights for mathematics educators as to the outcomes of these programmatic features.     

An Evaluation of Early Intervention Effectiveness at Increasing Age Levels for Program Initiation

Previous research has identified a negative correlation between developmental outcomes and length of early intervention programs. In the present investigation, these counterintuitive findings were examined on a sample of "at risk" children who had received a home-based infant development program and who had been enrolled at different age levels. Findings indicated that treatment length was negatively, but not significantly, correlated with developmental outcome. In addition, start age was found to be significantly negatively correlated with outcome, suggesting that certain developmental indices may decrease over time for certain populations. When the regression of time with start age was taken into account in the analyses, large and reliable treatment effects were observed at all start age levels. Results are discussed with respect to future research endeavors.     

An Evaluation of Early Intervention Effectiveness at Increasing Age Levels for Program Initiation

Previous research has identified a negative correlation between developmental outcomes and length of early intervention programs. In the present investigation, these counterintuitive findings were examined on a sample of “at risk” children who had received a home-based infant development program and who had been enrolled at different age levels. Findings indicated that treatment length was negatively, but not significantly, correlated with developmental outcome. In addition, start age was found to be significantly negatively correlated with outcome, suggesting that certain developmental indices may decrease over time for certain populations. When the regression of time with start age was taken into account in the analyses, large and reliable treatment effects were observed at all start age levels. Results are discussed with respect to future research endeavors.     

The Effectiveness of Adding a Parent Involvement Component to an Existing Center-Based Program for Children with Disabilities and Their Families

The belief that parent involvement in early intervention programs increases developmental benefits for children with disabilities and their families is widely accepted. However, very few studies have directly investigated the effects of parent involvement on child and/or family outcomes in a comparative design. For the present study, children in an early intervention program were randomly assigned to either of two groups. One group continued to receive the center- based program, and the other received the center-based program plus a specific parent involvement program. The type of parent involvement most frequently reported in the literature (White,Taylor, & Moss, 1992) was implemented. Weekly parent meetings for 15 weeks focused on teaching parents how to implement intervention at home, provided information on other topics, and facilitated social support. Assessment of child and family functioning took place prior to and immediately after the parent involvement program, as well as longitudinally over a four-year period. No immediate or long-term benefits for the children or their families were found. Findings are compared with findings of other studies. The implications of the findings in evaluating the rationales for this type of parent involvement program are discussed.     

The Effectiveness of Adding a Parent Involvement Component to an Existing Center-Based Program for Children with Disabilities and Their Families

The belief that parent involvement in early intervention programs increases developmental benefits for children with disabilities and their families is widely accepted. However, very few studies have directly investigated the effects of parent involvement on child and/or family outcomes in a comparative design. For the present study, children in an early intervention program were randomly assigned to either of two groups. One group continued to receive the center- based program, and the other received the center-based program plus a specific parent involvement program. The type of parent involvement most frequently reported in the literature (White,Taylor, & Moss, 1992) was implemented. Weekly parent meetings for 15 weeks focused on teaching parents how to implement intervention at home, provided information on other topics, and facilitated social support. Assessment of child and family functioning took place prior to and immediately after the parent involvement program, as well as longitudinally over a four-year period. No immediate or long-term benefits for the children or their families were found. Findings are compared with findings of other studies. The implications of the findings in evaluating the rationales for this type of parent involvement program are discussed.     

Establishing the Integrity of the Independent Variable in Early Intervention Programs

With the implementation of P.L. 99–457, early intervention programs are becoming more widespread; they are also being pressed to become more accountable. Persons evaluating early intervention programs have typically adopted outcome-oriented approaches focusing exclusively on measuring the dependent program variable (i.e., changes in student measures). This article highlights some of the problems inherent in these traditional approaches to program evaluation. A number of recommendations are offered for assessing the independent variable with the same methodological rigor that is typically reserved for measuring student outcomes in program evaluation studies. The implications of this shift in methodological approach are discussed in terms of improving the ability to replicate successful programs, design new ones with increased efficiency, and provide long-lasting support for early intervention.     

Establishing the Integrity of the Independent Variable in Early Intervention Programs

With the implementation of P.L. 99-457, early intervention programs are becoming more widespread; they are also being pressed to become more accountable. Persons evaluating early intervention programs have typically adopted outcome-oriented approaches focusing exclusively on measuring the dependent program variable (i.e., changes in student measures). This article highlights some of the problems inherent in these traditional approaches to program evaluation. A number of recommendations are offered for assessing the independent variable with the same methodological rigor that is typically reserved for measuring student outcomes in program evaluation studies. The implications of this shift in methodological approach are discussed in terms of improving the ability to replicate successful programs, design new ones with increased efficiency, and provide long-lasting support for early intervention.     

Validity of Curriculum-Based Scales With Young Neurodevelopmentally Disabled Children: Implications for Team Assessment

Recent surveys in early childhood special education and developmental school psychology reveal that criterion-referenced or curriculum-based developmental assessment (CBA) is the primary form of measurement employed by interdisciplinary early intervention teams. Despite their wide use, little technical adequacy data are available on the validity of CBA instruments with specific populations of handicapped preschoolers. This research analyzed the concurrent validity of two norm-based and six curriculum-based scales commonly used within community early intervention programs with a sample of 50 infants and preschool children having diverse neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral deficits. Results supported the concur- rent validity of CBA measures despite some significant interscale differences. Based on these results, guidelines are offered regarding "best practices" in the use of CBA systems by early intervention teams.     

Commentary: New Directions in Developmentally Informed Intervention Research for Vulnerable Populations

This special section of Child Development brings together experts in developmental science and intervention research to incorporate current evidence on resilience for vulnerable populations and give concrete suggestions for action and research. This commentary synthesizes the contributions of the articles, noting themes such as simultaneous attention to multiple risk, protective, and promotive processes; integrating new principles from clinical and therapeutic interventions; and adapting intervention approaches for new populations. It then describes additional directions for interventions to maximize resilience, including approaches that address social psychological processes, issues related to demographic and other forms of diversity, policy‐related individual behaviors, and sequenced interventions across the life span. It also gives suggestions for integrating implementation science on expansion and scale with behavioral intervention science.     

Validity of Curriculum-Based Scales With Young Neurodevelopmentally Disabled Children: Implications for Team Assessment

Recent surveys in early childhood special education and developmental school psychology reveal that criterion-referenced or curriculum-based developmental assessment (CBA) is the primary form of measurement employed by interdisciplinary early intervention teams. Despite their wide use, little technical adequacy data are available on the validity of CBA instruments with specific populations of handicapped preschoolers. This research analyzed the concurrent validity of two norm-based and six curriculum-based scales commonly used within community early intervention programs with a sample of 50 infants and preschool children having diverse neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral deficits. Results supported the concur- rent validity of CBA measures despite some significant interscale differences. Based on these results, guidelines are offered regarding “best practices” in the use of CBA systems by early intervention teams.     

The plasticity of intellectual development: insights from preventive intervention

Debates regarding the plasticity of intelligence are often fired by a confusion between 2 distinct realms of development, that is, between developmental functions (e.g., a group's average IQ over time) and individual differences (e.g., the relative rank ordering of individual IQs within a group). Questions concerning the stability of these 2 realms are statistically independent. Thus there are 2 kinds of intellectual plasticity, and there may be no developmental convergences between them. In the present study, data from an early intervention program were used to investigate the 2 kinds of plasticity separately and to examine certain possible convergences between them. The program involved children at risk for developmental retardation who were randomly assigned at birth to 2 rearing conditions (i.e., educational daycare vs. no educational intervention) and whose intellectual development was then studied longitudinally to 4 years of age. Our findings indicate that developmental functions are moderately alterable through systemic early education, particularly after infancy, whereas individual differences are moderately stable, again particularly after infancy. They also indicate that the 2 kinds of plasticity are independent; the alteration of developmental functions through daycare affects neither the stability nor the determinants of individual differences. We discuss the implications that these findings have for current models of mental development, for the nature-nurture debate, and for arguments concerning the efficacy of early intervention programs.     

Discriminating Quantity: New Points for Teaching Children with Down Syndrome About Number?

ABSTRACT

The focus of much mathematics teaching has been on the acquisition of counting, an area where children with Down syndrome can experience particular difficulties. Research with typically developing children has highlighted how early awareness of quantity provides a strong platform for the acquisition of later mathematical skills and programmes of early intervention have been introduced. Many of these studies are embedded in the work and traditions of developmental and cognitive psychology and can be difficult to access. Consequently, this is an area that has been largely ignored in the curricula of children with Down syndrome. This paper seeks to make this literature more available. It systematically reviews previous research with children with Down Syndrome on these early foundations. It considers seemingly contradictory findings in the light of differences in tasks, their presentation and instructions, and the responses required, in order to draw conclusions and reflect on the implications for teaching and learning. Some of these propositions are in contrast to existing practices and call for further research to test their effectiveness.     

The effects of infant day care through the prism of attachment theory: A critical appraisal

This commentary addresses the relevance of attachment theory and research to an understanding of the effects of early day care experience on sociopersonality development. Attachment theory figures prominently in Belsky's review of the day care literature both because of the theory's emphasis on formative early influences on personality functioning, and because of researchers' widespread (although not exclusive) use of the Strange Situation as a procedure for assessing the effects of day care on infant-parent attachment. This commentary offers an examination of the strength of the evidence which indicates that early day care experience may lead to insecure attachments. It is concluded that this evidence is substantially weaker than Belsky suggests. The article then draws upon the extensive research on attachment to explore the interpretation of infant behavior within the Strange Situation, and the significance of such behavior for later development, in light of the current concern about the effects of early day care experience. It is argued that this research suggests caution in concluding either that day care has negative consequences for the child or that it foreshadows long-term sociopersonality functioning. Suggested are areas of much needed future research which must be undertaken before strong conclusions concerning the effects of day care can be made.