The Development of Social Networks in Preschool Children

Behavioral observations and sociometric ratings were assessed in separate 3- and 4-year-old child care classes across a two year period. A cross sequential design included three cohorts. Cohort A was observed at age 4, Cohort B at ages 3 and 4 and Cohort C was observed at age 3 yielding two separate cross sectional comparisons and a longitudinal comparison across ages 3 and 4. Social network analyses were used to determine the relation between behavioral measures of social interactions and sociometric ratings, developmental changes in the degree of organization of the social networks in each class, and the degree to which gender was an organizing principle in the social structure of both age groups. In general, correspondence between the behavioral observations and sociometric ratings increased with age and the social structure showed greater cohesion in the 4-year-old class. Gender was an organizing principle in the social structure of the 4-year-old class and became more apparent across time in the 3-year-old class. Implications of the findings for the assessment of sociometric status and for intervention are discussed.     

Changing Social Dynamics in Early Childhood Classrooms

The purpose of this study was to analyze how social dynamics in early childhood classrooms change from fall to spring and from early to late preschool. The subjects were 92 preschoolers in age-stratified (3-year-old, 4-year-old, and 5-year-old) classrooms. Their sociometric ratings and peer contact patterns were recorded during the fall and spring. From early to late preschool, children's sociometric ratings became increasingly negative, especially toward cross-sex peers. Their contact patterns showed an analogous decrease in cross-sex contacts, although the changes were not as linear as those in the sociometric ratings. The analysis of group sizes showed that the 4-year-olds spent more time in larger groups than both their younger and older peers did. Group sociometric ratings and contact patterns changed from fall to spring, but individual children showed considerable stability in the sociometric ratings that they gave their peers and in the size and gender composition of their play groups.     

Preschool emotional competence: pathway to social competence?

Preschoolers' (N = 143) patterns of emotional expressiveness, emotion regulation, and emotion knowledge were assessed. Their contributions to social competence, as evidenced by sociometric likability and teacher ratings, were evaluated via latent variable modeling, both concurrently and across time. Moderation of key results by age and sex was also explored. Emotional competence assessed at 3 to 4 years of age contributed to both concurrent and kindergarten social competence. Even early in the preschool period, contributions of emotional competence to social competence have long-term implications.     

Characteristics of Aggressive-Rejected, Aggressive (Nonrejected), and Rejected (Nonaggressive) Boys

95 boys at 3 developmental levels (ages 6–8, 8–10, 10–12) were selected on the basis of sociometric and aggression ratings to represent 4 groups: (1) aggressive and rejected, (2) aggressive (not rejected), (3) rejected (not aggressive), or (4) neither aggressive nor rejected. Behavioral observations, teacher ratings, peer ratings, and open-ended peer interviews were collected to characterize the behaviors of these boys in 3 social domains (conduct problems, sociability/withdrawal, and adaptability/responsivity to peer expectations). Distinct problem profiles emerged. Aggressive-rejected boys exhibited more diverse and severe conduct problems that did aggressive boys, along with greater deficiencies in the domain of adaptability. Nonaggressive rejected children were considered by teachers and peers to be shy and passive, deficient in prosocial behaviors, atypical, and socially insensitive. Grade-level decreases in physical aggression and increases in peer-reported atypical/insensitive behaviors corresponded to developmental differences in group characteristics.     

Adolescent social competence: effectiveness in a group setting

We used a longitudinal data set to evaluate an observational assessment of adolescent competence within a group context. Participants were 40 (21 males, 19 females) ethnically diverse children who had earlier been observed in summer camp (age 10) and preschool (age 4 1/2), as well as in infancy. A revealed differences task was videotaped as part of an intensive weekend camp reunion at ages 15 to 16. Raters, blind to the adolescents' developmental histories, coded each adolescent on the following behavioral rating scales: enjoyment of the task, involvement, leadership, self-confidence in the task, and global social competence. Both concurrent validity (strong correlations with independent camp reunion counselor ratings and peer sociometric measures) and clear associations with antecedent measures of peer competence in preschool and middle childhood were demonstrated. A pattern of correlations revealed considerable discriminate validity. Neither IQ nor socioeconomic status accounted for these associations. Overall, the results confirm the power of a developmentally appropriate, taxing, behaviorally based assessment of group functioning as a measure of competence in adolescence.     

The peer relations of mildly delayed and nonhandicapped preschool children in mainstreamed playgroups

Previously unacquainted groups of normally developing and mildly developmentally delayed preschool-age boys (N = 64) were brought together to form a series of 8 mainstreamed playgroups. Each playgroup consisted of 3 normally developing 3-year-olds, 3 normally developing 4-year-olds, and 2 mildly developmentally delayed 4-year-olds. The delayed children were matched with the normally developing older group for chronological age and with the normally developing younger group for developmental level. Each playgroup operated 5 days per week for 2 hours per day for a 4-week period. During that time, the peer-related social and play interactions of each child were videotaped, and peer sociometric ratings were obtained at the completion of each playgroup. Analyses of social participation and individual social behavior measures revealed that the analogue playgroup setting was appropriate for evaluating peer interactions, as expected developmental patterns emerged despite the presence of children heterogeneous with respect to chronological age and developmental status. The existence of a deficit in peer-related social interactions for mildly delayed children was supported in this investigation--a deficit that could not be attributed to reputational factors, the unavailability of responsive peers, inadequate matching procedures, unusual sample characteristics, or similar factors. Selected observational measures, peer preference patterns during free play, and peer sociometric ratings also indicated that the delayed children were perceived to be less competent and of lower social status. However, despite their relative isolation, important developmental opportunities were available for mildly delayed children in the mainstreamed playgroups. Possible processes responsible for these outcomes were discussed.     

A study of the interrelationship between the behaviour and social status of a class of Year 2 pupils

The influence of social status on child development has been the subject of research for several decades, with children who are not accepted by their peers being shown to be at risk of a range of difficulties both at the time and in later life. Strong links have also been established between behaviour and social status. A small‐scale action research project considered the social structure of a Year 2 class and used data gathered through sociometric interviews and observations to identify some factors which may have influenced the social status of individuals within that group. From this data, three children considered at risk of peer rejection or isolation were identified and an intervention programme was implemented. At the end of the year sociometric interviews and observations were repeated and it was found that one child's social behaviours and status among his peers had increased significantly over the course of the project.     

Social Interactions and Peer Perceptions of Young Physically Abused Children

14 3-6-year-old children with a history of physical abuse and a closely matched comparison group of 14 nonabused children, all of whom had been in day-care for more than a year, participated in this investigation. Behavior observations, teacher reports, and peer sociometric ratings were used to evaluate children's peer interactions. It was found that abused children initiated fewer positive interactions with peers and exhibited a higher proportion of negative behavior than nonabused comparison children. Peers viewed abused children as less well liked. Further, peers were less likely to reciprocate the initiations of abused children, although they approached abused children as often as they approached comparison children. Teachers viewed abused children as more behaviorally disturbed. Overall, results indicated that abused children experience disturbed social interactions outside the home environment, despite involvement in a day-care setting that provides alternative peer and adult role models.     

Extended sociometric status of adolescents with mild handicaps: A cross‐categorical perspective

Abstract

We compared adolescents identified as having mild mental retardation, learning disabilities, behavioral disorders, and no known handicaps on regular classroom sociometric status extended to include measures of social impact and social preference. Students attended regular classroom physical education classes in six high schools from two adjacent school districts. We administered a rating scale sociometric in physical education classes where students with mild handicaps were enrolled. Results indicated that not all students with mild handicaps were similar in social acceptance, rejection, and preference. Students with mild handicaps also differed in composition of subgroups labeled popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average. We discuss implications concerning social standing differences across types of mild handicaps and the value of examining sociometric status in the manner employed here.     

Effortful Control Moderates Bidirectional Effects Between Children's Externalizing Behavior and Their Mothers' Depressive Symptoms

This study examined bidirectional associations between mothers' depressive symptoms and children's externalizing behavior and whether they were moderated by preschool‐age effortful control and gender. Mothers and teachers reported on 224 primarily White, middle‐class children at ages 3, 5, and 10. Effortful control was assessed via behavioral battery and mother ratings. Structural equation modeling indicated that maternal depressive symptoms at child age 3 predicted more externalizing behavior at age 10 among children with low effortful control and among boys. Externalizing behavior at age 3 predicted fewer depressive symptoms at the age 10 assessments among mothers of children with high effortful control. Boys with suboptimal self‐regulation exposed to high levels of maternal depressive symptoms were at greatest risk for school‐age behavioral problems.     

Children's Peer Relationships: Longitudinal Prediction of Internalizing and Externaliziing Problems from Middle to Late Childhood

In this longitudinal study, the predictive relations between social difficulties in early childhood (grade 2) and subsequent internalizing as well as externalizing problems in middle childhood (grade 5) were examined. Of particular interest was whether early indices of social isolation would predict internalizing problems 3 years later. A longitudinal sample of 87 children were assessed in both grades 2 and 5 on a variety of measures, including sociometric ratings, peer assessments of aggression and isolation, and self-appraisals of social competence. In the second grade, observations of isolated and aggressive behavior were made, as well, and teacher ratings of internalizing and externalizing difficulties were obtained. In the fifth grade, teacher ratings of shy-anxious and acting-out behavior and self-reports of loneliness and self-esteem were collected. Consistent with previous research, results demonstrated predictive links between early peer rejection (unpopularity) and aggression and subsequent externalizing difficulties. Internalizing problems in middle childhood were significantly related to early social difficulties, particularly those of an internalizing sort, including poor peer acceptance, social isolation, and perceptions of social incompetence. Social isolation, then, may indeed be a risk factor in early development.     

Middle school behavioral profiles of antisocial and at‐risk control boys: Descriptive and predictive outcomes

Abstract

In this investigation we report two studies of the school behavior adjustment status of two groups of middle school‐age boys—an antisocial group (N = 39) and an at‐risk control group (N = 41). In study one, we compared the two groups on a series of behavioral measures across grades five, six, and seven that included (1) teacher ratings of social skills, (2) classroom observations, (3) playground observations, and (4) school archival records. Results indicated extremely problematic behavioral profiles for the antisocial subjects and much more favorable profiles for the at‐risk control students. The behavioral profiles for the two groups appeared to be quite consistent and stable across the middle school years with the exception that several variables (social skills ratings, attendance, math achievement, and school discipline contacts) tended to show gradually increasing negative trends for the antisocial subjects. In the second study, we used a series of selected fifth‐grade variables, derived from the four major clusters of study measures, as predictors in regression analyses of subjects' status on a series of seventh‐grade criterion measures of school success or failure. The criterion measures predicted in these analyses were reading and math achievement, school discipline contacts, attendance, and time spent within a nonregular classroom. There were low multiple Rs for reading achievement and time spent in a nonregular classroom setting. The multiple Rs for math achievement, school discipline contacts, and attendance were moderate to moderately high.     

Family adversity,positive peer relationships,and children's externalizing behavior: a longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience

Peer acceptance and friendships were examined as moderators in the link between family adversity and child externalizing behavioral problems. Data on family adversity (i.e., ecological disadvantage, violent marital conflict, and harsh discipline) and child temperament and social information processing were collected during home visits from 585 families with 5-year-old children. Children's peer acceptance, friendship, and friends' aggressiveness were assessed with sociometric methods in kindergarten and grade 1. Teachers provided ratings of children's externalizing behavior problems in grade 2. Peer acceptance served as a moderator for all three measures of family adversity, and friendship served as a moderator for harsh discipline. Examination of regression slopes indicated that family adversity was not significantly associated with child externalizing behavior at high levels of positive peer relationships. These moderating effects generally were not qualified by child gender, ethnicity, or friends' aggressiveness, nor were they accounted for by child temperament or social information-processing patterns. The need for process-oriented studies of risk and protective factors is stressed.     

English Language Proficiency and Early School Attainment Among Children Learning English as an Additional Language

Children learning English as an additional language (EAL) often experience lower academic attainment than monolingual peers. In this study, teachers provided ratings of English language proficiency and social, emotional, and behavioral functioning for 782 children with EAL and 6,485 monolingual children in reception year (ages 4–5). Academic attainment was assessed in reception and Year 2 (ages 6–7). Relative to monolingual peers with comparable English language proficiency, children with EAL displayed fewer social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties in reception, were equally likely to meet curriculum targets in reception, and were more likely to meet targets in Year 2. Academic attainment and social, emotional, and behavioral functioning in children with EAL are associated with English language proficiency at school entry.     

Convergence of deaf children's sociometric scores and teachers' behavioral ratings

Twenty-four deaf children judged each other, using a standard sociometric technique, and were rated by their teachers. The correlations between the two sources at four assessment periods replicated previous findings of substantial convergence of teachers' behavioral ratings and children's sociometric scores, thereby extending this relationship to the population of language-impaired deaf children in residential school settings.     

Interpersonal problem solving and children's social competence: Are current measures valid?

Ninety-four first- and second-grade students participated in a study designed to determine whether a measure of interpersonal problem-solving skill would predict the social competence of children with no clinical history. The social competence measures used in the study included peer ratings (sociometric scores) and teacher ratings. The interpersonal problem-solving measure used yielded three separate scores obtained from ratings of open-ended responses to hypothetical peer problems. To enable control of other variables known to affect social competence, measures of IQ, academic achievement, and SES also were included. Results did not confirm a prior expectation that problem-solving scores would correlate well with competence measures. Correlations between the three problem-solving scores and both peer and teacher ratings all were in the range between .04 and .20. On the other hand, intelligence, achievement, and SES had moderate to high correlations with competence measures (range = .04–.77). In stepwise multiple regressions, only achievement and SES predicted peer and teacher ratings when other variables were controlled.     

Relations between Social Competence and Academic Achievement in Early Adolescence

Relations between academic performance and 3 aspects of social competence--socially responsible behavior, sociometric status, and self-regulatory processes (goal setting, interpersonal trust, and problem-solving styles)--were studied. Based on a sample of 423 12- and 13-year-old students, correlational findings indicate that each aspect of social competence is related significantly to students' grades. Results from multiple regression analyses suggest that when accounting for students' IQ, sex, ethnicity, school absence, and family structure, socially responsible behavior mediates almost entirely the relations between students' grades and the other 2 aspects of social competence. Socially responsible behavior and peer status appear to be related by way of their joint association with goals to be socially responsible, interpersonal trust, and problem-solving styles. Similarly, relations between socially responsible behavior and the background variables are explained by joint relations with the self-regulatory processes. The social nature of learning and the role of self-regulation in both interpersonal and behavioral aspects of social competence are discussed.     

Tools for the classroom? An examination of existing sociometric methods for teacher use

Despite the recent technical and theoretical advances in the investigation of children's social relations, the inherent complexity of these methods may prevent their easy integration into the classroom. A simple and effective tool can be valuable for teachers who wish to investigate students' social realities in the classroom. Therefore, the present study aims to identify an effective sociometric method for educator's use in the classroom. Nine separate sociometric categorisations were created from peer reports of grade one students (N = 748). Methods that have different collection methods (nominations or ratings) show surprisingly low agreement, unlike those with the same collection method. Methods based on peer nominations showed the strongest correlations with students' behavioural traits. Based on these results, we discuss the relevance and usefulness of such methods for use by classroom teachers in identifying students' social realities.     

Using sociometric techniques to assess the social impacts of inclusion: Some methodological considerations

In recent years, sociometric techniques have been increasingly used to assess friendship development in children with special educational needs integrated in regular educational settings. In this paper, the findings produced by different techniques are contrasted with a view to examining whether the variable findings reported can be attributed to the technique employed. The analysis revealed that peer nominations have been used to determine pupils' social status and have overwhelmingly produced negative results. Peer ratings have been used to ascertain the level of acceptance pupils enjoy within their class network and have also produced negative results. Social Cognitive Mapping has been used to obtain information about the nature of social networks and the relations among peers and has produced mixed to positive results. As such, Social Cognitive Mapping could be viewed as a more robust approach that addresses more thoroughly the complexities of young children's social relations than the other two classic sociometric techniques. The paper concludes with highlighting methodological challenges surrounding the application of sociometric techniques and advocates their embedding within innovative multi-method research designs.     

Temperamental Qualities at Age Three Predict Personality Traits in Young Adulthood: Longitudinal Evidence from a Birth Cohort

In an unselected sample of over 800 subjects we studied whether behavioral styles at age 3 are linked to personality traits at age 18. We identified 5 temperament groups (labeled Undercontrolled, Inhibited, Confident, Reserved, and Well-adjusted) based on behavioral ratings made by examiners when the children were 3. These groups were reassessed at 18, and their personality styles were measured with the self-report Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Results pointed to continuities across time. As young adults, Undercontrolled children scored high on measures of impulsivity, danger seeking, aggression, and interpersonal alienation; Inhibited children scored low on measures of impulsivity, danger seeking, aggression, and social potency; Confident children scored high on impulsivity; Reserved children scored low on social potency; and Well-adjusted children continued to exhibit normative behaviors.