Family adversity,positive peer relationships,and children's externalizing behavior: a longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience

Peer acceptance and friendships were examined as moderators in the link between family adversity and child externalizing behavioral problems. Data on family adversity (i.e., ecological disadvantage, violent marital conflict, and harsh discipline) and child temperament and social information processing were collected during home visits from 585 families with 5-year-old children. Children's peer acceptance, friendship, and friends' aggressiveness were assessed with sociometric methods in kindergarten and grade 1. Teachers provided ratings of children's externalizing behavior problems in grade 2. Peer acceptance served as a moderator for all three measures of family adversity, and friendship served as a moderator for harsh discipline. Examination of regression slopes indicated that family adversity was not significantly associated with child externalizing behavior at high levels of positive peer relationships. These moderating effects generally were not qualified by child gender, ethnicity, or friends' aggressiveness, nor were they accounted for by child temperament or social information-processing patterns. The need for process-oriented studies of risk and protective factors is stressed.     

Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament

The current study investigated a hypothesized link between early child temperament and later problem behavior. Early temperament was assessed at ages 6, 13, and 24 months via mother ratings on age-appropriate versions of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. The 24-month form was developed in this study. Factor analyses of the questionnaire indicated a clear difficultness factor that was similar in content across all 3 ages. The 6-, 13-, and 24-month difficultness factors were correlated with home observation measures of mother-toddler interaction at age 24 months. Home observation indexes focused on situations where the mother tried to control the toddler's "trouble" behavior. Children rated by their mothers as difficult at 24 months were found to approach "mild trouble" more frequently than children perceived as easy or average. Furthermore, their mothers used intrusive control tactics more frequently than mothers of easy or average children. Analysis of behavior sequence variables showed that difficult children resisted their mothers' control attempts significantly more often than easy or average children, that is, had more conflict with the mothers. The 6- and 13-month difficultness scores predicted both the 2-year-old difficultness rating and the observed conflict indexes. It is suggested that the conflict observed in the interaction between the difficult 2-year-olds and their mothers is conceptually similar to the conflictual behavior characteristic of older, clinically referred, socially aggressive children and their mothers. Thus, the conflicted interactions found at age 2 years may represent an empirically based link between difficult infant temperament and the development of childhood problem behavior.     

Resilience Among Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: The Role of Risk and Protective Factors

Individual and family characteristics that predict resilience among children exposed to domestic violence (DV) were examined. Mother–child dyads ( n  =   190) were assessed when the children were 2, 3, and 4 years of age. DV-exposed children were 3.7 times more likely than nonexposed children to develop internalizing or externalizing problems. However, 54% of DV-exposed children maintained positive adaptation and were characterized by easy temperament (odds ratio [OR] = .39, d  = .52) and nondepressed mothers (OR = 1.14, d  = .07), as compared to their nonresilient counterparts. Chronic DV was associated with maternal depression, difficult child temperament, and internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Results underscore heterogeneous outcomes among DV-exposed children and the influence of individual and family characteristics on children's adaptation.     

Behavior problems in elementary school among low-income boys: The role of teacher–child relationships

The authors identified trajectories of teacher–child relationship conflict and closeness from Grades 1 to 6, and associations between these trajectories and externalizing and internalizing behaviors at 11 years old among low-income, urban boys (N = 262). There were three main findings. Nagin cluster analyses indicated five trajectories for conflict with all children evidencing increases in conflict, and four trajectories for closeness with all children demonstrating decreases in closeness. Trajectories with higher levels of conflict and lower levels of closeness were associated with higher levels of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems at 11 years old. Moreover, conflictual teacher–child relationships exacerbated the effects of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in early childhood; children with conflictual teacher–child relationships had higher levels of behavior problems in middle childhood relative to children with low conflictual teacher–child relationships. Implications of targeting teacher–child relationships as interventions to help prevent behavior problems are discussed.     

Early life stress and behavior problems in early childhood: Investigating the contributions of child temperament and executive functions to resilience

This preregistered study examined whether child temperament and executive functions moderated the longitudinal association between early life stress (ELS) and behavior problems. In a Dutch population-based cohort (n = 2803), parents reported on multiple stressors (age 0–6 years), child temperament (age 5), and executive functions (age 4), and teachers rated child internalizing and externalizing problems (age 7). Results showed that greater ELS was related to higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems, with betas reflecting small effects. Lower surgency buffered the positive association of ELS with externalizing problems, while better shifting capacities weakened the positive association between ELS and internalizing problems. Other child characteristics did not act as moderators. Findings underscore the importance of examining multiple protective factors simultaneously.     

Family Income Dynamics,Early Childhood Education and Care,and Early Child Behavior Problems in Norway

The sociopolitical context of Norway includes low poverty rates and universal access to subsidized and regulated Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC). In this context, the association between family income dynamics and changes in early child behavior problems was investigated, as well as whether high‐quality ECEC buffers children from the effects of income dynamics. In a population‐based sample (N = 75,296), within‐family changes in income‐to‐needs predicted changes in externalizing and internalizing problems (from ages 18 to 36 months), particularly for lower income children. For internalizing problems, ECEC buffered the effect of income‐to‐needs changes. These findings lend further support to the potential benefits of ECEC for children from lower income families.     

Abusive parents' reports of child behavior problems: relationship to observed parent-child interactions

PURPOSE: We evaluated the hypothesis that abusive parents' reports may exaggerate rates of child behavior problems in a clinical sample. METHOD: The association between parental ratings of behavior problems and independent observations of child behaviors was examined in a sample of 205 clinic-referred families, 58 of which had a reported history of physical abuse. RESULTS: Relative to the comparison group, parents in the abuse group reported more externalizing problems in their children after controlling for parental psychopathology, and displayed more emotionally controlling and less supportive behavior during parent-child interactions. However, there was no association between abuse history and observed child behaviors during the interaction tasks. Abuse status significantly moderated the association between parent-reported externalizing behaviors and observed demanding behavior by the child; the association was significant among comparison families, but not in the abuse group families. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that abusive parents may over-report externalizing behavior problems in their children.     

Externalizing Problems in Head Start Children: An Ecological Exploration

The increased familial and environmental stressors affecting Head Start families over the last two decades have precipitated an escalation of mental health difficulties among participant children (Yoshikawa & Knitzer, 1997). Using an ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). this study explored externalizing behavior problems among a group of Head Start children in a suburban county. Children were assessed for externalizing behavior problems in the home and classroom. Additionally, parents participated in interviews about a variety of ecological factors related to children's behavior problems. Almost one-quarter of the children were identified by their parents as having externalizing behavioral problems in the borderline or clinical range. Twice as many girls as boys had borderline or clinical levels of behavioral problems. Child externalizing behavior was positively associated with child internalizing behavior, parent psychological symptomatology, child temperament, family environment, and exposure to community violence. Children with parent-identified externalizing behavior did have specific social problem-solving skills deficits. Additionally, they were observed to have high levels of specific inappropriate behavior, but did not exhibit high levels of teacher-rated behavior problems. The implications of these findings for Head Start program planning are discussed.     

Externalizing Problems in Head Start Children: An Ecological Exploration

The increased familial and environmental stressors affecting Head Start families over the last two decades have precipitated an escalation of mental health difficulties among participant children (Yoshikawa & Knitzer, 1997). Using an ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). this study explored externalizing behavior problems among a group of Head Start children in a suburban county. Children were assessed for externalizing behavior problems in the home and classroom. Additionally, parents participated in interviews about a variety of ecological factors related to children's behavior problems. Almost one-quarter of the children were identified by their parents as having externalizing behavioral problems in the borderline or clinical range. Twice as many girls as boys had borderline or clinical levels of behavioral problems. Child externalizing behavior was positively associated with child internalizing behavior, parent psychological symptomatology, child temperament, family environment, and exposure to community violence. Children with parent-identified externalizing behavior did have specific social problem-solving skills deficits. Additionally, they were observed to have high levels of specific inappropriate behavior, but did not exhibit high levels of teacher-rated behavior problems. The implications of these findings for Head Start program planning are discussed.     

Externalizing behaviors of Ukrainian children: The role of parenting

The purpose of this study was to assess the association of positive and negative parenting with child externalizing problems. Quantitative data were collected during face-to-face interviews with 320 parents of children 9–16 years of age (50% males) in 11 communities in Eastern, Southern, and Central Ukraine. The study estimated the relationship between parenting practices and child externalizing behaviors such as aggression, delinquency, and attention problems. Results revealed that positive parenting, child monitoring, and avoidance of corporal punishment were associated with fewer child externalizing symptoms. Results also indicated that child male gender and single parenting had significant and positive association with child externalizing behaviors. This study extends international psychosocial knowledge on children and families. These findings can be used to design programs and foster dialogs about the role of family and social environments in the development of externalizing disorder among researchers, representatives of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and mass media that work with child abuse prevention in Ukraine.     

Does amount of time spent in child care predict socioemotional adjustment during the transition to kindergarten?

To examine relations between time in nonmaternal care through the first 4.5 years of life and children's socioemotional adjustment, data on social competence and problem behavior were examined when children participating in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care were 4.5 years of age and when in kindergarten. The more time children spent in any of a variety of nonmaternal care arrangements across the first 4.5 years of life, the more externalizing problems and conflict with adults they manifested at 54 months of age and in kindergarten, as reported by mothers, caregivers, and teachers. These effects remained, for the most part, even when quality, type, and instability of child care were controlled, and when maternal sensitivity and other family background factors were taken into account. The magnitude of quantity of care effects were modest and smaller than those of maternal sensitivity and indicators of family socioeconomic status, though typically greater than those of other features of child care, maternal depression, and infant temperament. There was no apparent threshold for quantity effects. More time in care not only predicted problem behavior measured on a continuous scale in a dose-response pattern but also predicted at-risk (though not clinical) levels of problem behavior, as well as assertiveness, disobedience, and aggression.     

Worried and Blue: Mild Parental Anxiety and Depression in Relation to the Development of Young Children's Temperament and Behavior Problems

Objective. This study explores relations between mild parental symptoms of anxiety and depression and the temperament and behavior patterns in preschool age children. Design. Parental report and laboratory observations were collected in a community sample (N = 65) of Head Start and other preschool attendees, ages 3-5 years. Results. Mild parental dysphoria is associated with measures of both child temperament and problem behaviors and these child personality measures vary with parental symptomatology. Mild parental depression was diffusely associated with increased levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, and with attention and emotion regulatory difficulties in children's temperament. Mild parental anxiety was more circumscribed in its association with child problem behavior but was specifically related to children's temperamental difficulties in attention and emotion regulation. Patterns differentiating association with depression and anxiety symptoms were evident from both parental and observer sources of information. Conclusions. Even mild levels of parental distress may relate to both parental perceptions of child temperament and behavior as well as what is observed by others.     

Maternal Negativity and Children's Externalizing Behavior

Maternal negativity in parent-child interactions related to both the presence and persistence of child externalizing behavior problems. We examined how behavior of 120 mothers and their children in an interaction task at preschool related to assessments of child behavior problems at preschool, first grade, and third grade. At preschool and first-grade, children were assigned to three groups: comparison, moderate externalizing, and pervasive externalizing; at both timepoints the pervasive externalizing group had greater maternal negativity assessed at preschool. Maternal negativity was predicted, beyond the child's disruptive behavior in the task, by two variables: mother's perception of low spousal agreement and support related to child problems and depression. At third grade, child symptoms and diagnoses of ADHD and ODD were predicted by mothers' commands and repeat commands, though not negativity, in the preschool interaction task. Implications of these findings for early family intervention are discussed.     

Mutual influence of marital conflict and children's behavior problems: shared and nonshared family risks

This within-family, longitudinal study including biological and stepfamilies investigated mutual influences between marital conflict and children's behavior problems. Children (4 to 17 years; N=296) residing in 127 families drawn from a general population study were investigated at Time 1 and again 2 years later. These nested data were analyzed using multilevel modeling, controlling for previous child behavior or marital conflict. Marital conflict about children predicted change in children's behavior. Children's behavior also predicted an increase in marital conflict, particularly in stepfamilies. Differences between siblings in exposure to conflict and the extent to which siblings were a source of argument increased more in stepfamilies than in biological families. Boys were exposed to more conflict over time than were girls.     

Child Temperament and Home-Based Parent Involvement at Kindergarten Entry: Evidence From a Low-Income,Urban Sample

Research Findings: Home-based involvement—defined as the actions parents take to promote children’s learning outside of school—is often the most efficient way for low-income parents to be involved with their children’s education. However, there is limited research examining the factors predicting home-based involvement at kindergarten entry for low-income families. This is a notable oversight given established links between parent involvement and children’s educational outcomes. To learn more about this gap, we used data from 220 low-income, urban students to examine associations between 4 dimensions of child temperament—negative reactivity, task persistence, withdrawal/shyness, and motor activity—and home-based parent involvement. Parent–child conflict was also examined as a mechanism explaining associations between dimensions of child temperament and parent involvement. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that a withdrawn/shy temperament in children predicted lower levels of home-based parent involvement, whereas a task-persistent temperament predicted higher levels of home-based parent involvement. Parent–child conflict partially mediated the relationship between task persistence and home-based parent involvement. Practice or Policy: Results expand understanding of home-based involvement at kindergarten entry in low-income families and illuminate the need to consider child temperament within the context of early intervention programs.     

Maternal Negativity and Children's Externalizing Behavior

Maternal negativity in parent-child interactions related to both the presence and persistence of child externalizing behavior problems. We examined how behavior of 120 mothers and their children in an interaction task at preschool related to assessments of child behavior problems at preschool, first grade, and third grade. At preschool and first-grade, children were assigned to three groups: comparison, moderate externalizing, and pervasive externalizing; at both timepoints the pervasive externalizing group had greater maternal negativity assessed at preschool. Maternal negativity was predicted, beyond the child's disruptive behavior in the task, by two variables: mother's perception of low spousal agreement and support related to child problems and depression. At third grade, child symptoms and diagnoses of ADHD and ODD were predicted by mothers' commands and repeat commands, though not negativity, in the preschool interaction task. Implications of these findings for early family intervention are discussed.     

Predicting Behavior Problems in Children with Epilepsy: Child Factors, Disease Factors, Family Stress, and Child-Mother Interaction

This study examines the relative role of parent-child relationships, family stress, and disease factors in predicting behavior problems in children with epilepsy. It extends existing literature on parent-child relationships and behavior problems by examining children with biological risk. Child-mother interaction was observed for 51 children with epilepsy ages 7–13 years and related to teacher- and parent-reported behavior problems. Child's self-reliance correlated with parent-reported problems; expression of affect related to teacher-reported externalizing problems. A child self-reliance factor accounted for behavior problems after partialing age, gender, IQ, epilepsy variables, and family stress. The term child gender × quality of mother-child interaction predicted teacher-reported externalizing problems, with mother-child interaction correlated with behavior problems for boys. Child-parent relationships predict the development of behavior problems over and above the influence of disease-related factors, even for children at considerable biological risk.     

Temperament Moderates Associations Between Exposure to Stress and Children's Externalizing Problems

The interaction between a temperament profile (four groups determined by high vs. low resistance to control [unmanageability] and unadaptability [novelty distress]) and family stress in predicting externalizing problems at school in children followed from kindergarten through eighth grade (ages 5–13) was investigated. The sample consisted of 556 families (290 boys). At Time 1 just prior to kindergarten, mothers retrospectively reported on their child's temperament during infancy. Each year, mothers reported stress and teachers reported children's externalizing problems. Temperament profile was tested as a moderator of the stress–externalizing association for various time periods. Results indicated that the combination of high resistance to control and high unadaptability strengthens the stress–externalizing association. Findings are discussed in terms of possible underlying mechanisms.     

Adoptive Gay Father Families: Parent–Child Relationships and Children's Psychological Adjustment

Findings are presented on a U.K. study of 41 gay father families, 40 lesbian mother families, and 49 heterosexual parent families with an adopted child aged 3–9 years. Standardized interview and observational and questionnaire measures of parental well‐being, quality of parent–child relationships, child adjustment, and child sex‐typed behavior were administered to parents, children, and teachers. The findings indicated more positive parental well‐being and parenting in gay father families compared to heterosexual parent families. Child externalizing problems were greater among children in heterosexual families. Family process variables, particularly parenting stress, rather than family type were found to be predictive of child externalizing problems. The findings contribute to theoretical understanding of the role of parental gender and parental sexual orientation in child development.     

Maternal Parenting Stress,Child Exuberance,and Preschoolers’ Behavior Problems

This study investigated whether child exuberance, an aspect of temperament related to emotion regulation, moderates the well-documented association between high parenting stress and increased risk for internalizing and externalizing problems during the preschool years. At 42 months of age child exuberance was observed in 256 children (47% girls) and maternal self-reports on parenting stress were obtained. At 48 months internalizing and externalizing problems were assessed through reports from both parents. Indeed, higher maternal parenting stress increased the risk for internalizing problems, and this association was more pronounced among children with high levels of exuberance. Existent emotion regulation difficulties in highly exuberant children may further heighten the risk conveyed by an unfavorable caregiving environment for developing internalizing problems.