Repetition in Early Intervention Programs

This article is directed to two issues: the extent to which children in early intervention programs are experiencing repetition in their curriculum from one year to the next (as manifested by reiteration of Individual Educational Program [IEP] objectives), and whether repetition results, at least in part, from establishing initial objectives that are too difficult for the children. The authors reviewed objectives from two sequential IEPs on 36 children from 15 programs in 10 states across the country, Although the data were too "messy" for a complete classification of objectives, careful inspection revealed a great deal of repetition and near-repetition in consecutive IEPs that were separated, on the average, by approximately one year. By matching objectives, where possible, to the expected age of mastery as indicated on a standardized instrument, and to the child's functional age, the authors found a clear tendency for children's objectives to be beyond their developmental level. It is concluded that although slow children will of course learn slowly, the data of this study, confirmed by research in child development, suggest that some of the reiteration in early intervention may be the result of excessive demands rather than the "need for repetition" intrinsic to those with mental retardation.     

An Analysis of the Core Cognitive Curriculum in Early Intervention Programs

This study investigates the existence of an identifiable core cognitive curriculum operative in early intervention programs—its substance and its suitability for preschoolers with developmental disabilities. As an initial approach, the authors present preliminary data on three specific questions: Have early intervention programs adopted a common set of developmental inventories for assessing children? Do the frequently used inventories share a common set of items? Are the common items adopted as Individual Educational Program (IEP) objectives? By polling members of the Division of Early Childhood (DEC), Council for Exceptional Children for their preferred assessment instruments, then listing the common items from their top choices, and, finally, comparing the listed items with written IEP objectives, the authors identified elements of a core curriculum in current use by many early intervention programs. Within the cognitive domain, it was found that at least one out of five items common to the developmental inventories—shapes, colors, quantities, sizes, and puzzles (includes formboards)—were listed as objectives on 75% of the IEPs collected from programs located in the same states as DEC respondents. The appropriateness of these "preacademic" instructional targets in the context of developmental "readiness" is questioned.     

An Analysis of the Core Cognitive Curriculum in Early Intervention Programs

This study investigates the existence of an identifiable core cognitive curriculum operative in early intervention programs—its substance and its suitability for preschoolers with developmental disabilities. As an initial approach, the authors present preliminary data on three specific questions: Have early intervention programs adopted a common set of developmental inventories for assessing children? Do the frequently used inventories share a common set of items? Are the common items adopted as Individual Educational Program (IEP) objectives? By polling members of the Division of Early Childhood (DEC), Council for Exceptional Children for their preferred assessment instruments, then listing the common items from their top choices, and, finally, comparing the listed items with written IEP objectives, the authors identified elements of a core curriculum in current use by many early intervention programs. Within the cognitive domain, it was found that at least one out of five items common to the developmental inventories—shapes, colors, quantities, sizes, and puzzles (includes formboards)—were listed as objectives on 75% of the IEPs collected from programs located in the same states as DEC respondents. The appropriateness of these "preacademic" instructional targets in the context of developmental "readiness" is questioned.     

Learning in Early Intervention Programs: The Generalization and Maintenance of IEP Objectives

This study investigates the maintenance and generalization of preacademic objectives in children with mental retardation from early intervention programs. All the subjects (25) had mastered, according to their Individual Education Programs (IEPs), at least one task in the areas of color, shape, number, or big/little . They, along with children in three comparison groups, were given a series of tasks that included the same previously achieved IEP objectives (maintenance) and closely related tasks within the same domain (generalization). The findings indicated variability in maintenance and generalization for the children in early intervention, better for color and shape than for number and big/little. Success on generalization was below the usual standard indicating mastery (85%-100%). On the generalization tasks, children in early intervention performed similarly to older children with retardation who had lower standard scores (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised) but roughly equivalent language ages. They performed less well than older children with retardation who had similar standard scores but higher language ages. They also performed less well than children without disabilities in regular preschool programs who were close in chronological age, but had higher standard scores and higher language ages. We conclude that performance on these tasks is closely tied to developmental age regardless of chronological age and "IQ" status. Findings are discussed in relationship to preacademic curriculum in early intervention programs.     

Learning Language in Early Intervention Programs

Investigators of early language development have noted that teachers tend to select specific language objectives and teach them didactically, whereas parents are more likely to adopt open-ended objectives and teach them opportunistically. The authors have called the former approach directive, because of its reliance on teacher-controlled precision teaching, and the latter nondirective, because of its reliance on child-centered supportive techniques. This article explores the relative emphasis given these two approaches in early intervention by examining language objectives on Individual Educational Programs (IEPs) drawn from 20 programs in 10 states. It also analyzes the directive versus nondirective nature of language items on eight major developmental inventories that are used both to assess children's language and as the source of language objectives. The primary finding—a preponderant directive orientation on both IEPs and inventories—is discussed in terms of the literature on language development in normal and handicapped preschoolers.     

Learning Language in Early Intervention Programs

Investigators of early language development have noted that teachers tend to select specific language objectives and teach them didactically, whereas parents are more likely to adopt open-ended objectives and teach them opportunistically. The authors have called the former approach directive, because of its reliance on teacher-controlled precision teaching, and the latter nondirective, because of its reliance on child-centered supportive techniques. This article explores the relative emphasis given these two approaches in early intervention by examining language objectives on Individual Educational Programs (IEPs) drawn from 20 programs in 10 states. It also analyzes the directive versus nondirective nature of language items on eight major developmental inventories that are used both to assess children's language and as the source of language objectives. The primary finding—a preponderant directive orientation on both IEPs and inventories—is discussed in terms of the literature on language development in normal and handicapped preschoolers.     

Attitudes Toward Deafness and Security of Attachment Relationships Among Young Deaf Children and Their Parents

This study investigated deaf children's "security of attachment" relationships with their hearing parents and the relationship of parental attitudes toward deafness. Subjects included 30 deaf children and their hearing parents. The children ranged in age from 20 to 60 months. Instruments used included the Attachment Q-Set, the Attitudes to Deafness Scale, and parental interviews. As a group there were no differences between security of attachment scores of deaf children toward either of their parents; however, there were marked differences within individual dyads of mother–child/father–child relationships. In addition, negative correlations were found between parents' attitudes towards deafness scores and their deaf children's security of attachment scores. Implications for the field include the importance of inclusion of fathers in attachment studies and fathers' active participation in early intervention programs. The relationship between parental attitudes toward their children's disability (deafness) and attachment relationship provides further evidence for the critical role of early intervention in the development of children with special needs.     

Early feelings about school and later academic outcomes of children with special needs living in poverty

In this investigation we examined the relation of children's reported feelings about school during kindergarten or first grade to their academic achievement at the end of fifth grade. Participants were children (N = 103) who lived in poverty during early childhood and who were placed on individualized education programs (IEPs) during their elementary school years. Results indicated that early feelings about school predicted fifth-grade outcomes above and beyond predictions based on an assessment of receptive language at age 5. Specifically, general positive feelings about school predicted higher fifth-grade literacy skills whereas feelings of greater competence in academics predicted higher fifth-grade math skills. The findings have implications for interventions with young children who have special learning needs, live in poverty, and report early ambivalent or negative feelings about school.     

Relationship between IEP Characteristics and Test Scores on an Alternate Assessment for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

Although many studies have examined the alignment of state standards with large-scale assessment and instruction, fewer have attended to alignment concerning alternate assessments for students with significant disabilities. This study was designed to (1) compare expectations in one state's alternate assessment (AA) with curricular priorities reflected in students' Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), and (2) consider the effect of this relationship on AA scores. The study was conducted in a state whose AA consisted of standardized performance tasks measuring reading comprehension (RC) and number systems (NUM). Archival data, including AA scores and IEPs for 292 students, were analyzed. The average IEP emphasized speaking, writing, and measurement, and objectives primarily required simple recall skills. Half of IEPs contained no objectives aligned with RC. More than one third of IEPs did not align with NUM. Assessment–IEP alignment had a moderate effect on Reading test score, but not Math test score. Recommendations are made for future investigations of the taught curriculum for this population, and professional development to improve alignment of instruction with assessments.     

Social IEP Objectives, Teacher Talk, and Peer Interaction in Inclusive and Segregated Preschool Settings

The purpose of this study was to examine: (a) the role of teacher talk in promoting peer interaction, (b) the adequacy of social IEP objectives to reflect children’s social functioning and guide provision of teacher talk, and (c) differences in children’s peer interaction and teacher talk in inclusive and segregated settings. Thirty children with disabilities and their teachers participated. Overall, we observed low rates of teacher talk thought to support peer interaction; however, when teachers verbally facilitated peer interaction, children were observed interacting more frequently with peers. Children’s social IEPs accurately reflected their current level of social functioning. However, the social IEPs appeared to fail to influence teacher intervention. Finally, children with disabilities in inclusive settings interacted with peers more than children in segregated settings, even though there was no significant difference in amount of teacher talk in the two settings.     

Understanding the Active Ingredients in an Effective Preschool Vocabulary Intervention: An Exploratory Study of Teacher and Child Talk During Book Reading

Research Findings: In order to identify the active ingredients in an effective professional development intervention focused on enhancing preschool vocabulary instruction, this study examines the frequency with which teachers and children discussed theme-related vocabulary words during shared book reading. Head Start teachers received 1 year of training focused upon early vocabulary development. Children's vocabulary skills were assessed in the fall and spring of the school year. In spring, teachers read a storybook to their classroom, and teachers’ and children's remarks about theme-related vocabulary during the reading—including contextualized and decontextualized statements as well as verbatim repetitions of one another's statements—were coded. Practice or Policy: Results of multilevel models showed that more frequent references to thematic vocabulary by teachers were linked to stronger child vocabulary development. Although children's vocabulary references were not uniquely predictive of vocabulary learning, teachers’ repetition of children's remarks contributed to children's vocabulary gains.     

The assessment of severely intellectually disabled students

In 1995 it became mandatory to establish individual educational plans (IEPs) for children with special educational needs in the Swedish compulsory school. On the basis of the pupils' needs, such a plan should contain information about the pupils' school situation and performance, the class, teaching etc. The aim of this article was to study how special educational needs are defined and described and what support measures the school is suggesting, using IEPs from a sample of Swedish compulsory schools. Our study is based on an analysis of IEPs for pupils with special educational needs in the nine‐year compulsory school in a municipality in northern Sweden. A strategic selection of three compulsory schools was made and we restricted the study to grades 3, 6 and 9. The method used to analyse the IEPs was content analysis. Using different theories within the field of special education and disability studies, we have tried to discern to what extent the problems described, and the proposed measures (intervention), are related to predetermined theoretical models of disability and special needs education. Our analysis indicates that difficulties are predominantly attributed to the pupils' shortcomings and individual characteristics, and the same holds for the recommended measures. Another interesting finding is that a number of the plans were established without involving the parents, and many of them did not even know that their child had an IEP. Finally, we discuss our findings in relation to different research traditions within the field of special education.     

The effects of experience of early intervention on low birth weight,premature children: The infant health and development program

This study explores individuals' experience of early intervention in two settings (the home and the child development center) and the effect of that experience on child and parental outcomes in the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP). The IHDP was a randomized clinical trial designed to test the efficacy of educational and family support services on reducing developmental delays in low birth weight (LEW), premature infants (N = 985) during the first 3 years of life. This study focused on children in the intervention group who received at least one home visit and one day at the center each year (n = 296). Three approaches to measuring participants' experience of intervention were defined—number of contacts in the home and at the child care center (i.e., Exposure), number of activities presented per visit to the parent in the home or per day to the child at the center (i.e., Rate); and a combination of the parent's interest in the intervention activities in the home and the child's mastery of the intervention tasks taught at the center (i.e., Active Experience). More substantial contributions to both child IQ and the HOME scores at age 3 were found with the Active Experience approach than with the Exposure or the Rate approach, after controlling for initial background variables, family socioeconomic status, children's initial IQ, and parental cognitive ability. Further, a high level of Active Experience from both the parent and the child was associated with higher IQ scores at ages 1, 2, and 3 and higher HOME scores at age 3 than was found when only a high level of Active Experience from only the parent or the child, or neither, was involved. Implications for future intervention programs are discussed.     

Promoting Parents' Social Capital to Increase Children's Attendance in Head Start: Evidence From an Experimental Intervention

Improving children's attendance is a high priority for Head Start and other early childhood education programs serving low-income children. We conducted a randomized control trial in a major northern city to evaluate the impact of a low-cost intervention designed to promote parents' social capital as a potential influence on children's attendance in Head Start centers. The intervention assigned children to treatment group classrooms based on (a) neighborhood of residence (geography condition) or (b) the geography condition plus the opportunity for parents to form partnerships in support of their children's attendance, or to control group classrooms according to Head Start guidelines only. We did not find impacts on average attendance throughout the year. However, the intervention did lead to increased attendance during the winter when average center attendance was lowest. There were no impacts on fall or spring attendance. Follow-up exploratory analyses of focus groups with parents and staff suggested that parents' level of connection and trust, self-generated partnership strategies, and commitment to their children's education may be factors by which parents' social capital expands and children's attendance improves.     

Book review of Rallying the Whole Viage: The Comer Process for Reforming Education

This study tested the feasibility of an intervention designed to increase the frequency and quality of shared reading among low-income parents and their young, 2- and 3-year-old children. The program was based on an interactive reading method known to facilitate children's receptive and expressive language skills. Study participants were 61 children and their parents; they resided in 1 of 2 socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Prior to the intervention, few parents reported frequent home reading, and most children's language skills were at or below that of others' their age. After the intervention, the frequency of home reading more than doubled, and significantly more parents reported their children enjoyed shared reading. This study demonstrates that relatively simple, inexpensive, community-based programs can change the home language and literacy activities of families with young children, including those most likely to begin school less "ready" than their middle-class peers.     

Who are the young children for whom best practices in reading are ineffective? An experimental and longitudinal study

The primary purpose of this study was to identify student characteristics that reliably predict responsiveness and nonresponsiveness to generally effective early literacy interventions. Participants were 104 children, including 7 with special needs and Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), who were tested in kindergarten and first grade. Responsiveness/nonresponsiveness status was determined after 2 years during which children participated in best practice instruction (a) in kindergarten and first grade, (b) in kindergarten only, (c) in first grade only, or (d) in neither year. This facilitated the study of three groups. Always responsive students met responsiveness criteria in both years. Sometimes responsive students met the criteria in only one year. Nonresponsive students did not meet the criteria in either year. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant function analysis indicated that the three groups were reliably different from one another on measures of problem behavior, verbal memory, sentence imitation, syntactic awareness, vocabulary, naming speed, and segmentation. A combination of naming speed, vocabulary, sentence imitation, problem behavior, and amount of intervention correctly predicted 82.1% of nonresponsive students, 30.0% of sometimes responsive students, and 84.1% of always responsive students. Fifty students from kindergarten and first grade were tested again at the end of what should have been their third-grade year. All but 1 of the nonresponsive students who received intervention had been identified as requiring special education and had an IEP with reading goals.     

Student perceptions of their IEP targets

The 2001 Code of Practice for Special Educational Needs ( DfES, 2001 ) explicitly states that students with IEPs should have an active role in the writing and implementing of them. A research project was conducted in which 19 Year 8 students in three schools were interviewed, with the findings cross‐referenced against an examination of their individual education plans (IEPs) and interviews with the SENCos. Very few students were able to communicate a clear understanding of IEPs. Students' stated targets mostly reflected mainstream target‐setting: very few stated targets matched with those in their IEPs. Consistent with these findings is literature which argues that meaningfully involving students in the IEP process takes considerable time and effort, which would appear to imply that the number of students with IEPs in any one school must be limited. Against this are pressures, particularly from OFSTED but also from examination boards, to have IEPs available as evidence that students' needs are being met. The article concludes by suggesting that SENCos look to limit the number of IEPs issued, alongside a robust defence of the school's special educational needs policy within the school evaluation form to ensure that students' needs are met and also are seen to be met.     

The effect of early childhood developmental program attendance on future school enrollment in rural North India

This paper examines the effect of prior participation in early childhood developmental programs, considered endogenous, upon 7–18 years olds’ school enrollment in rural North India. Analyses by age group of data from the World Bank's 1997–98 Survey of Living Conditions in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar reveal that 7–10 year olds, 11–14 year olds, and even 15–18 year olds are more likely to be enrolled in school as a result of having attended an early childhood developmental program when they were 0–6 years old. It is also found that this favorable effect is particularly pronounced among children from households below the poverty line.     

Impact of early intervention on expressive and receptive language development among young children with permanent hearing loss

Along with early detection, early intervention (EI) is critical for children identified with hearing loss. Evidence indicates that many children with sensorineural hearing loss experience improved language abilities if EI services were initiated at an "early" age. The present study's objectives were to determine the impact of a state EI program on language over time of children with permanent hearing loss and evaluate the association of EI enrollment by age 6 months with early language skill development. Young children in a state EI program were included in this longitudinal study. Results indicate that children enrolled prior to age 6 months were more likely to have age-appropriate language skills at baseline than children enrolled at or after 6 months, and maintained age-appropriate skills over time. Children enrolled at or after 6 months had lower baseline skills but made significant language progress, irrespective of hearing loss severity.