The gender gap in K-12 educator salaries

We examine gender gaps in the salaries of K-12 educators. This is an occupation where direct gender discrimination is less likely since salaries are determined by a union pay scale and women constitute the majority of employers. Using data from the American Community Survey (ACS), we find a gender gap of $12,000 in the personal income of K-12 educators, with only part of this gap stemming from gender differences in administrative positions, graduate degrees, and grades taught. In contrast, when we use a dataset of the public salaries of K-12 educators, we find a raw gender gap that is about three times smaller. When we directly compare the distribution of annual income for male and female educators between the public salary and ACS data, we find that an important part of the gender gap stems from male educators having additional income outside of their primary teaching salary.     

Should Faculty Rank Be Included as a Predictor Variable in Studies of Gender Equity in University Faculty Salaries?

Many different approaches, almost all of which use some form of regression, have been used to study the issue of gender equity in university faculty salaries. One major point of contention in ail of these approaches is whether faculty rank, which is university conferred, should be included as a predictor variable. Two illustrations are presented to demonstrate how omitting faculty rank as a predictor variable from gender equity studies of university faculty salaries can lead to incorrect conclusions concerning gender discrimination. The first illustration uses hypothetical data constructed so that there is no difference in salary due to gender. However, when faculty rank is not included as a predictor variable in the regression model, there is a significant difference in salary due to gender. The second illustration uses actual data from a study of gender equity in pay at Bowling Green State University. This data set is used to construct a new data set that is totally free of gender bias. When a regression model omitting faculty rank is fit to this gender bias-free data, again a significant difference in salary due to gender is present. Therefore, it is recommended that faculty rank be included as a predictor variable in any model used to study gender equity relating to salary.     

安徽师范大学女教职工状况调查与分析

安徽师大女教职工队伍呈现年轻化特点,学历层次与职业满意度较高,健康状况及居住条件尚可,家庭关系比较和睦,能够胜任工作要求。也有部分教职工对职业收入、育人环境、性别关系等感到不满。有关部门应关注女性身心健康,进一步优化工作环境,男性要改变传统性别观念,女性自身要增强主体意识。     

中国当代女性电影、女性生存及未来——以三部当代女性电影为例

《一个陌生女人的来信》、《生死劫》、《红颜》三部当代女性电影以全新的女性视角和肆意的“阴性书写”观察社会,观照中国现代女性生存现实,表现出鲜明的女性意识和女性情感。在男权依旧膨胀的现代社会,女性电影的探索历程势必是艰辛、漫长和充满矛盾的。讲究方法策略,正视性别问题,重建个性尊严、自由平等的社会正义,这理应是中国当代女性和女性电影共同的理想彼岸。     

Work and Life Balance Support of Female Midlevel Noninstructional Staff at Community Colleges

Two-year public institutions are known for their nurturing academic environments that support students from diverse backgrounds and experiences. One would assume that these nurturing and supportive environments would also go beyond the students to include employees. Family-friendly working environments support the needs of employees to balance work and life obligations without affecting career advancement opportunities. To decide whether two-year public institutions are family-friendly working environments, this quantitative study explored the perceptions of female midlevel noninstructional professional staff in various administrative positions at 215 two-year public institutions. A survey designed to obtain participant perceptions of their working environments and institutional policies pertaining to work and life balances was completed by 590 respondents. By understanding the perceptions of midlevel noninstructional professional staff, institutions can address the areas of concern by establishing formal policies that support the needs of working adults to help them balance work and life obligations without affecting future career advancement opportunities.     

The impact of blatant pay disclosure in a university environment

Using a self-report survey, this investigation described university employees' reactions to the publication of their salaries in a local campus newspaper. Correlational analyses indicated associations between impact of the disclosure and salary level, salary equity/satisfaction, instrumentality of performance-reward outcomes, internal salary attributions, and salary discussion. Further analysis found differences in respondent perceptions to be contingent upon job category (academic, professional, and support staff) and faculty level. Qualitative analysis suggested that individual responses to the salary disclosure took various forms: no effect at all, planning to leave one's job, attempting to correct salary inequities, reducing personal effort, and working harder. The findings are discussed in relation to the literature on open pay systems and invasion of privacy.This paper was presented in part at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, Texas, August 1983.     

私立幼儿园教师生存状态研究——以四川省 N市私立园为例

通过对四川省N市4区2县的城市、乡镇和农村私立幼儿园教师生存状态进行调查,发现私立园存在教师年龄结构不合理、业余活动品质不够高、工资待遇满意度不高、获得专业发展的机会不多以及教师队伍不稳定等问题。针对以上问题,各级政府应坚持以人为本的激励策略调动教师的从教热情和创新能力、重视幼儿教师专业发展。私立园教师自身亦应明确使命,重视业务学习,多进行教学反思,积极参与幼儿园教研活动和教育教学改革。     

理工科女大学生专业学习的困境及分析

理工科女大学生是一个特殊的群体,面对社会上广为流传的女生不适合学理工科的思维定势,她们通过刻苦与努力,证实了自己的专业学习成绩和能力;然而,面对就业市场中广为存在的性别歧视,以及干得好不如嫁得好的社会环境,她们对所学专业的兴趣是否会有所变化?她们在专业学习中面临着怎样的困境?她们与性别歧视的抗争之路到底能走多远?最后将要终于何处?本文通过对几百名理工科大学生的调查数据分析,以理工科女大学生的专业学习困境为主线,描述了理工科女大学生专业兴趣的变化过程,探讨了在学习的动力和能力等方面存在的性别差异,并进一步分析了造成她们专业学习困境的可能原因。     

How gender is constructed and experienced in the social world of the nursery school

This case study attempts to capture the way gender is constructed and experienced in the social world of the nursery school. It presents findings from a staff survey, structured and unstructured observations of one male’s and one female’s professional practice and one-to-one interviews with children aged three to four years. Despite practitioners’ reported intentions to challenge traditional notions of gender, construction of traditional gender distinctions was not problematised by staff and was upheld by comments of children. Children appeared to construct themselves in terms of gender stereotypes and were offered only limited alternative gender positions by the male and female practitioners.     

主题公园游客期望和感知的性别差异分析——以杭州宋城旅游景区为例

以宋城旅游景区为例,通过问卷调查,采用spss12.0统计软件对主题公园女性和男性游客的期望和感知以及同一性别游客的期望和感知差异程度进行分析.研究表明:除在家庭结构方面,女性和男性游客在年龄、受教育程度、家庭月收入等基本人口统计学特征上差异性不明显;女性游客在游览期望方面多关注保健因素,显著不同于男性游客多关注于激励因素的情况,但两性在游览感知方面,差异性不明显,而且得分都不高;同一性别的游客对游览感知普遍低于其期望水平,其期望和感知差异的范围要大于不同性别游客期望和感知差异的范围.     

河北省地区间的财力差异与调节

在对河北省地区间财力差异进行实证分析的基础上,对现行转移支付制度平衡河北省地区间财力差异的效应进行了实证性评估,最后提出相关的政策建议。     

Gender divergence in academics’ representation and research productivity: a Nigerian case study

Gender equity is increasingly seen as an indicator of development and global acceptance in networks of higher education. Despite this, gender divergence in research productivity of academics coupled with under-representation of women in science has been reported to beset female’s scholarly activities. Previous studies provide differing results, hence a need for each academic institution to know its status for the purpose of formulating appropriate policy towards achieving gender equity without trading off productivity. Using a scientometric method, the present study investigates the representation and research productivity of male and female lecturers in the Faculty of Science, University of Ibadan. The study shows that while female lecturers are significantly less represented in the faculty and publish in journals having lower impact factors, their research productivity in terms of number of publications and citation impact are significantly not different from those of their male counterparts.     

Gendered education in a gendered world: looking beyond cosmetic solutions to the gender gap in science

Young people in countries considered to be at the forefront of gender equity still tend to choose very traditional science subjects and careers. This is particularly the case in science, technology, engineering and mathematics subjects (STEM), which are largely male dominated. This article uses feminist critiques of science and science education to explore the underlying gendered assumptions of a research project aiming to contribute to improving recruitment, retention and gender equity patterns in STEM educations and careers. Much research has been carried out to understand this gender gap phenomenon as well as to suggest measures to reduce its occurrence. A significant portion of this research has focused on detecting the typical “female” and “male” interest in science and has consequently suggested that adjustments be made to science education to cater for these interests. This article argues that adjusting science subjects to match perceived typical girls’ and boys’ interests risks being ineffective, as it contributes to the imposition of stereotyped gender identity formation thereby also imposing the gender differences that these adjustments were intended to overcome. This article also argues that different ways of addressing gender issues in science education themselves reflects different notions of gender and science. Thus in order to reduce gender inequities in science these implicit notions of gender and science have to be made explicit. The article begins with an overview of the current situation regarding gender equity in some so- called gender equal countries. We then present three perspectives from feminist critiques of science on how gender can be seen to impact on science and science education. Thereafter we analyze recommendations from a contemporary research project to explore which of these perspectives is most prevalent.     

Gender,culture and STEM: Counter-intuitive patterns in Arab society

Using longitudinal administrative data to track student achievement and choice, we show how social conditioning shapes gender differences in the choice of STEM study fields, after controlling for prior achievement and socio-economic background. The male majority in advanced matriculation electives in mathematics, physics, and computer science, observed among students in Hebrew-language schools in Israel as in other Western societies, is reversed among Arab students, a society with markedly less gender equality. This greater representation of Arab female students in STEM study fields is only partially explained by the large gender gap favoring girls in eighth-grade mathematics and science achievement in Arabic-language schools. Much of the remaining difference in gender gaps can be traced to differences in the relationship between prior circumstance and choice between the two groups. This belies the notion of a congenital female aversion to traditionally male STEM subjects, and accords with previous findings that gender differences in preferences are greater in societies with greater gender equality. Following a cohort of eight-grade students to matriculation eliminates the selection bias that attenuates estimates of gender gaps in studies that analyze choices of college-bound students.     

Part-time work and advancement: a study of female professional staff in Australian universities

One focus of gender equity policies in universities has been the creation of ‘retention’ part-time work for professional staff, which allows employees to move between full-time and part-time hours at their request. This paper examines whether such ‘good’ part-time jobs can contribute to or at least not impede women’s career advancement. The paper examines the correlation between job classification and part-time work, and whether a period of part-time work acts as a significant ‘brake’ on a woman’s career trajectory. This study uses data from the 2011 Work and Careers in Australian Universities survey. Part-time work is used extensively by lower-classified women, but rarely by those in higher classifications. Part-time work stalls career advancement compared to working full-time, but this brake is reduced if a woman transitions back to full-time work.     

Gender and higher education experience: a case study

This research seeks to contribute to current discussion of gender differences in experience of higher education. Its specific focus is to compare the assessment of various university services by male and female students. The research sample consisted of 9793 students who participated in three University of Western Sydney surveys in 2004 and 2005. The results suggest that, first, female students place higher importance on the majority of the university’s services than do male students; second, as female students advance through their studies, they appear more demanding about the quality of services, while male students remain comparatively tolerant; and third, while all students consider that some areas warrant improvement, this is significantly more so for female than for male students. Specifically, the key areas for improvement from female students’ perspective are the relevance and instructional clarity of the course and efficiency of administration. It is recommended that, considering the current trends in higher education across gender, a sharper focus on these areas for improvement action could help the university ensure equity and better manage competition.     

Funding Allocation and Staff Management. A Portuguese Example

For many years the Portuguese Ministry of Education used a funding formula to allocate the State budget to public higher education institutions. Some of its major objectives were higher enrolments and allocation equity. As the expenditure on salaries was a major component of the budget, the formula was supposed to force convergence to established standard staff/student ratios. This article analyses the evolution of staff numbers in Portuguese public universities to assess how successful the funding formula has been in forcing convergence to standard staff numbers.     

性别收入差异的教育水平、行业及职业分析

依据2000年湖北省妇女收入调查的数据,从教育分布、行业和职业分布三个层面对影响和制约女性收入绝对数量和相对水平的分析,说明女性化教育程度的提高和进入非传统行业、从事专业工作,虽然不能完全消除收入的性别差异,但有助于提高女性的总体收入、缩小收入的性别差距。     

和谐社会背景下社会体育女性参与现状分析

就参与社会体育的两性比例而言,女性明显低于男性。造成这种弱势的主要原因在于女性群体在社会中的经济地位和受教育程度较低以及传统性别文化对女性参与社会活动的消极影响。文章在分析女性社会体育参与现状及形成原因的基础上,从转变社会观念、提高女性自身素质、争取社会各界支持等方面对提高女性社会体育参与度提出了建议。