The effects of effort feedback and performance patterns on children's attributions and task persistence

This study examines the effects of performance patterns (ascending versus random) and attributional information regarding the causes of that performance (effort feedback versus no feedback) on attributions and task persistence. Subjects were 40 fourth and fifth graders with dispositional tendencies not to perceive effort as a cause of their school-related performance. Results indicated that performance patterns did not systematically influence either children's attributions or persistence. As predicted, children given effort feedback exhibited greater levels of task persistence than those given no feedback; unexpectedly, however, this effect was not mediated by children's attributions.     

Locus of control and tutor's instructional style as determinants of cross-age tutoring effectiveness

Junior high students serving as cross-age tutors taught their elementary school tutee an analogy lesson in the presence of observers who recorded tutor teaching behaviors and tutee learning as a function of students' internal-external control. Based upon results demonstrating that externals outperform internals when another person provides feedback regarding response accuracy, it was hypothesized that tutorial instruction would benefit external learners more than internal learners. Correlations between tutee externality and task performance (though in the expected direction) were not significant and failed to support the hypothesis. On the other hand, hypotheses regarding tutor behaviors were confirmed. As predicted, internal tutors expected to be more successful teachers, used more verbal and nonverbal cues in their teaching, expended more noticeable effort, and taught more analogies than external tutors. The implications of these results for the conduct of tutoring programs in schools was discussed.     

Multivariate prediction of academic performance by Hong Kong University students

Verbal intelligence, English-language skills, personality, and attitude scales were used as predictors of academic performance in 230 male and female arts students at the University of Hong Kong. A series of bivariate, multiple, and canonical correlation analyses were performed. The results showed that verbal intelligence and attitudes, excepting study orientation, were not predictive of performance. English-language skills had the most predictive value, accounting for about 10% of the variance of performance measures. Personality variables failed to predict performance when composite criterion measures (GPAs) were used; however, they proved to be of predictive value when results of individual academic subjects were used as criterion measures. The study points to the importance of using noncomposite criterion measures in prediction and of considering the cultural context of achievement.     

Differential effects of norm-referenced and self-referenced feedback on performance expectancies,attributions, and motivation

When feedback is provided to students in a norm-referenced manner that compares the individual's performance to that of others, people who perform poorly tend to attribute their failures to lack of ability, expect to perform poorly in the future, and demonstrate decreased motivation on subsequent tasks. The present study examined the hypothesis that the deleterious effects of failure might be attenuated when failure is expressed in self-referenced terms—relative to the individual's known level of ability as assessed by other measures. In this study, subjects received feedback indicating that they did well or poorly on an anagram test, and this feedback was described as either norm-referenced (comparing the individual's performance to that of others) or as self-referenced (comparing performance to other measures of the individual's ability). As predicted, compared to norm-referenced failure, self referenced feedback resulted in higher expectancies regarding future performance and increased attributions to effort. Contrary to expectations, attributions to ability were not affected. The implications of the results for the structure of academic feedback are discussed.     

Performance of good and poor readers at two grade levels on an Auditory Cognitive Style Task

Sixty-four good and poor readers at first and third grades were administered a task measuring cognitive style in the auditory modality. They were also administered the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) to obtain a measure of IQ. Poor readers committed significantly more errors and exhibited shorter response latencies on the Auditory Cognitive Style Task than did good readers. More importantly, poor readers demonstrated inefficient strategies for successful performance. It was suggested that good reading skills, as well as successful performance on the auditory task, require a certain degree of planfulness and self-monitoring activity on the part of the child which was apparently absent in the poor reader. Furthermore, it was proposed that the cognitive style variable, conceptual tempo, may be better viewed within the framework of the concept of metacognition.     

The usefulness of teachers' characteristics in predicting teachers' ratings of racially and linguistically different students

The study was designed to determine whether professional experiential characteristics or stereotyped expectations best predict teachers' ratings of racially and linguistically different children. Sixty-eight white elementary school teachers rated 12 speakers who differed in race and dialect. Biographical information concerning teachers' training experience teaching black students was collected as were stereotyped expectancies. Results of maximum R² improvement techniques revealed that professional characteristics were unrelated to teachers' ratings, but that stereotyped attitudes predicted the teachers' performance. The results are discussed with reference to the implication for success of disadvantaged children in the educational system and for future in-depth research.     

The role of fantasy figures in the regulation of young children's behavior: Santa Claus,the Easter Bunny,and donations

The present study examined the influence of Santa Claus and the Easter Bunny on children's donations near the Easter season. Kindergarten and first-grade children were asked to tell stories about Santa Claus, the Easter Bunny, or pets, for which they received nine pieces of gum. They were then encouraged to donate any amount of their gum to handicapped children. Main effects were found only for grade, with first-grade children donating significantly more than kindergarten children. In addition, a significant interaction was obtained between grade and type of story elicited from the child. This interaction revealed that for kindergarten children, the type of story failed to influence donations, whereas for first-grade children, stories referring to Santa Claus increased donations relative to stories told about the Easter Bunny or pets.     

Feedback complexity and corrective efficiency

College undergraduates read a 2400-word passage, responded to 16 multiple-choice questions, and received one of four types of feedback following their responses. Complexity of feedback was inversely related to both error correctability and criterion efficiency taken as a ratio of feedback study time to post-test corrects. The results were discussed in terms of depth of processing and instructional comprehension.     

Score,rank, or evaluation: Does type of performance feedback make a difference?

Three kinds of information—a score, rank, or evaluation—were presented to subjects as feedback about their performance on a task measuring financial ability. The information was given under conditions where subjects anticipated working either alone or in a group on a similar ability-relevant task. As predicted, in the alone condition favorable evaluative information produced higher ability estimates than either scores or ranks. Only under conditions of expected group interaction did rank information produce ability estimates comparable to evaluative information. Subjects receiving raw scores generally made lower ability estimates than subjects receiving the other two types of information. The selection of riskier and more difficult future tasks was associated with higher ability evaluations. Relevance of these results to pupil evaluation in a school setting was discussed.     

Study time and test performance as a function of test expectations

Study time and test performance change as a function of subjects expecting either open questions or a multiple-choice test on the contents of a history text. After studying a first history text, the subjects immediately received a test consisting of either open questions or multiple-choice items. They were led to expect the same type of test on a second text. Study time on Text 2 was self-paced, and the type of test was either the expected or unexpected one (either open questions or a multiple-choice test). The main hypothesis was confirmed that subjects consider open questions a more demanding test than a multiple-choice test. Accordingly, subjects expecting open questions on Text 2 used more study time and performed better on both types of test than did subjects expecting a multiple-choice test. Internal analyses revealed that the differences on study time and test achievement between the two expectation conditions occurred only when the subjects were thoroughly acquainted with the processing requirements of the learning material and its expected test.     

Eye movement analysis of information processing under different testing conditions

The study reported herein was designed to use eye movement data, collected during solution of complex figural analogies, to test the premise that enhanced feedback mechanisms and opportunities for dual coding of figural stimulus information result in the allocation of an increased percentage of information-processing resources to rule application activities. Subjects were given items from the Advanced Progressive Matrices under elaborated feedback, subject verbalization, or standard procedures. Results indicate that elaborative testing conditions, involving elaborated feedback or subject verbalization, enhance the rule-governed nature of information processing during inductive reasoning by augmenting feedback and dual coding.     

Effects of students' race,physical attractiveness,and dialect on teachers' evaluations

The study was designed to assess the effects of a student's race, dialect, and physical attractiveness on teachers' evaluations. The students were of two races, black and white; three physical attractivenss levels, high, middle, and low; and they spoke one of two dialects, Black English or Standard English. Sixty-eight, white, elementary school teachers listened to each student's response and rated the student in terms of personality, quality of response, and current and future academic abilities. Analysis of the results showed that all main effects and interactions were significant. Generally, black students, Black English-speaking students, and low attractive students were rated lower. The results also revealed that teachers' ratings in the different areas were highly consistent with one another. Discussion centered around the results' implications for determining the cause(s) of black children's failure in school. The results provide some support for attributing these children's academic failures to their race and dialect rather than to their actual performance.     

Change in strategy: The relationship of attribution,expectancy, performance,and satisfaction

The purpose of the study was to examine the degree to which change in examination preparation is related to measures of attribution, expectancy, prior performance, perceived success/failure, and satisfaction. Subjects were students in an intermediate graduate statistics course. Although performance is the single best predictor of change in preparation, three attribution measures and satisfaction contributed unique predictive variance. While expectancy was significantly related to change in preparation, it did not add uniquely to the multiple correlation.     

On the theory and measurement of reading comprehension

This paper suggests that reading comprehension must involve an interaction between the reader's world knowledge and the incoming linguistic message. We call this the minimal comprehension principle. After examining the measurement of reading comprehension from the perspective of the minimal comprehension principle, we conclude that most existing tests of reading comprehension are likely to be unsatisfactory for the purposes of assessing educational gain and diagnosing reading difficulty. We suggest several techniques which might be more suitable for these purposes.