Ensuring quality in EPs’ use of dynamic assessment: a Delphi study

Dynamic Assessment (DA) is an interactive form of cognitive assessment used by some educational psychologists (EPs) to assess the learning potential of children and young people, through a focus on cognitive and affective aspects of learning. In terms of UK EP practice, this approach has the potential to complement the focus on ‘person-centred planning’ set out in the Special Educational Needs and Disability Code of Practice. However, there is little guidance or consensus on what constitutes good DA practice. This research employed a Delphi methodology to identify competencies required to carry out quality DA. A panel of five international experts in DA and 17 EPs, using DA in practice, participated in three rounds of a Delphi study that identified 13 knowledge and 12 skills competencies considered essential for quality DA practice. The resulting framework could inform training and professional development programmes for EPs wishing to develop their skills and competence in practice.     

Dynamic assessment: supporting educational psychologists’ practice through the use of video during supervision

ABSTRACT

Dynamic assessment (DA) is appealing to educational psychologists (EPs) due to: its flexibility, allowing EPs to adjust materials and processes to fit the assessment context; its usefulness, revealing ideas about how the next steps for learning might be achieved; and its focus on strengths. In Feuerstein’s words, “it is the instances of success of the individual that are the focal point for analysis for the reasons of success and failure”. Given the appeal of DA, it is frustrating that it has not been taken up more by practitioners. This paper will explore what DA is, and what it is not, summarise its advantages, consider why it is not more widely used, and introduce one way in which EPs can receive support for DA; using video of an EP “doing” DA within supervision in order to reflect on “good” DA.     

Collaboration Between Educational Psychologists and Speech and Language Therapists: Barriers and opportunities

This paper reports a study that aimed to investigate the perspectives of educational psychologists (EPs) and speech and language therapists (SLTs) about collaborative practices across these two services, to identify any barriers to collaboration and to explore how these could be overcome. The views of EPs and SLTs in two local authorities were sought using a questionnaire. Data analysis identified differences relating to professional and attitudinal issues, revealing divergent views about assessment and resource allocation. Communication difficulties were also identified. Approaches to develop effective collaborative practice are discussed and the importance of creating opportunities to deliver joint training in schools is highlighted.     

Teaching Experience and Educational Psychologists' Credibility with Teachers: An empirical investigation

The extent to which educational psychologists' credibility with teachers relies on their own teaching experience is an issue that has been hotly debated in the profession for more than 30 years. It is widely perceived as a key reason for retaining qualified teaching experience as a requirement for training as an educational psychologist (EP). The studies reported in this paper investigate whether teachers know that educational psychologists have been teachers (a logical pre-requisite to affording them high credibility on this basis). The studies also examine the regard in which EPs are held by teachers who know, and teachers who do not know, that EPs have been teachers. Results indicate that teaching experience cannot be regarded as necessary to EPs' credibility with teachers. However, a positive relationship between teaching experience and credibility with teachers, among primary school teachers, raises questions about ways of broadening EPs' pre-course experience.     

An Evaluation of the Use of Accredited Baseline Assessment Schemes in England

Baseline assessment (accredited through the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority [QCA]) became a statutory requirement from September 1998 for all main tained primary schools in England. Since that date, schools have been required to implement baseline assessment with all children within seven weeks of starting school (i.e. at about 4‐5 years of age) unless a comparable recent assessment has been made. A survey of baseline assessment in local education authorities (LEAs), covering both providers of schemes and LEAs using ‘bought in’ schemes, was carried out in summer 2000. This was followed by a parallel survey of a random sample of schools and case studies of the operation of baseline assessment in 16 LEAs. Baseline assessment was generally viewed positively and regarded as working effectively by school and, in particular, by LEA personnel. Areas of concern focused on lack of training in the use to be made of the data by schools, weaknesses concerning validity and reliability, lack of parental involvement or understanding of the process, and confusion of purposes. This study extends discussion and evidence concerning earlier phases of baseline assessment. It raises significant issues about the potential use of baseline assessment for performance management of individual teachers and, more broadly, sets the scene for the revision of statutory baseline assessment to take effect from 2002/2003.     

Teachers’ reasons for using self-assessment: a survey self-report of Spanish teachers

The study aimed to explore teachers’ beliefs about student self-assessment (SSA) and the reasons for their use of it in their classrooms. A representative sample of 944 Spanish teachers (38.8% primary school sector, 54.0% secondary school sector and 7.2% university or adult education sector) were surveyed about SSA. Data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling to determine statistically and theoretically significant predictors of teachers’ self-reported use of SSA. Results showed that 90% of the teachers indicated having used SSA in their courses and 90% reported having positive experiences. A well-fitting structural model found five statistically significant predictors for the use of SSA: (1) positive experience with self-assessment, (2) belief in student participation in assessment, (3) willingness to include self-assessment as percentage of final grade, (4) self-assessment advantages and (5) having attended assessment courses. Statistically significant mean score differences for these factors were found according to level of employment and level of educational qualifications. In conclusion, teachers’ values, attitudes and prior experiences with this type of assessment contributed a significant proportion of self-reported SSA usage.     

Pupil absenteeism and the educational psychologist

From a review of the literature, it is concluded that (i) each form of pupil absenteeism relates to a heterogeneous group of children; (ii) because of such heterogeneity, those who are involved in assessment and intervention in relation to pupil absenteeism are faced with a demanding task; (iii) as a consequence of their education and training, educational psychologists (EPs) have the appropriate knowledge and skills for dealing with pupil absenteeism at both the individual and group level; (iv) with respect to dealing with pupil absenteeism, EPs could make and have made a contribution; (v) EPs have the necessary experience of working at a multi-agency level and, in connection with pupil absenteeism, have worked not only with the children and their parents but also at both whole school and multi-agency levels; and (vi) EPs have already demonstrated in the literature that they have much to offer in this important and demanding area.     

Using technology to educate deaf and hard of hearing children in rural Alaskan general education settings

Teachers in Alaskan rural schools were surveyed on their use of instructional technology. The surveyed teachers included the entire population of certified elementary and secondary school classroom teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students in these schools. Respondents generally were older, more experienced, elementary level female teachers who were relatively well educated. Almost half of the respondents held special education certification; about 25% had an endorsement in deaf education. Data analysis indicates that educators who use instructional technology, either in curriculum or broad agenda formats, may be older, hold an advanced degree and secondary education certification, benefit from in-service training on site, are connected to the Internet, and actively use the technology available at their schools. Most of the surveyed educators identified lack of training in the use and integration of software as a barrier to increased classroom use of technology. Based on the study findings, recommendations are made concerning the training needs of teachers in rural Alaska.     

Impact of a Content Selection Framework on Portfolio Assessment at the Classroom Level

Among the various alternative approaches to student evaluation, portfolio assessment has been shown to have considerable potential in terms of its use in the evaluation of higher-order, cross-curricular skills. Despite this favourable outlook, it may nevertheless remain a passing fad due to the lack of a conceptual content selection framework and difficulties surrounding its implementation within the classroom setting. The present study reports on the conceptual issues that arose when a generic content framework was used to guide the selection of entries for assessment purposes. The framework proposed the systematic collection of evidence of the cognitive, affective, behavioural, metacognitive and developmental dimensions of students' mastery of a specific competency. Data were drawn from 11 case-studies of portfolio applications by teachers from eastern Ontario, Canada. It was found that the effective integration of the portfolio into teaching and assessment practices depended largely on the flexibility of the framework and, to some extent, on the type of training or support provided to the teachers.     

Dynamic Assessment of Young Children: Educational and Intervention Perspectives

Dynamic/interactive assessment (DA) has been motivated by the inadequacy of conventional static tests to provide accurate information about the individual's learning ability, specific deficient functions, change processes, and mediational strategies that are responsible for cognitive modifiability. A growing need for DA with young children has emerged recently because decisions about treatment should be made as early as possible. The objectives of this paper are to review the major criticism of the standardized static testing approach, present the theoretical basis of the DA approach, describe current research on DA of young children within educational and intervention perspectives, and suggest some directions for future research. The theoretical foundations of the presented research derive from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, specifically the zone of proximal development concept, and Feuerstein's mediated learning experience theory. DA has been applied with different clinical and educational groups and was found to be more accurate in reflecting children's learning potential than static tests, especially with minority and learning disabled children. The mediational strategy is also reported as more effective than other intervention approaches (e.g., graduated prompt). The DA approach was found useful in assessing outcome effects of cognitive education programs aimed at enhancing learning how to learn skills. Crucial issues of cost-effectiveness, training, reliability and validity, and generalization are discussed.     

US principals’ attitudes about and experiences with single-sex schooling

Despite a lack of scientific evidence supporting the use of single-sex education, the number of US public schools offering single-sex education has increased. However, our understanding as to why decision-makers have implemented single-sex education is lacking. To address this gap, we surveyed US public school principals and assessed their attitudes about and experiences with single-sex schooling. Sixty-seven principals from single-sex schools and 193 principals from co-educational schools participated. The results indicated that principals who had experience with single-sex schooling tended to have more positive attitudes about single-sex schooling, viewed it as more effective, and more often evoked gender-essentialist rationales for the use of single-sex schooling than did co-educational principals. However, both single-sex and co-educational principals noted issues with single-sex schooling. It was concluded that single-sex schooling is not a silver bullet to educational reform and that when single-sex schooling is implemented, one set of issues and problems is substituted for another.     

An evaluation of a pre‐training assistant educational psychologist programme

Two cohorts of psychology graduates with Graduate Basis for Registration (GBR) with the British Psychological Society (BPS), and a range of relevant work experience (teaching, youth and social work) were employed by the Kent Educational Psychology Service (EPS) over a two‐year period as assistant educational psychologists (Assistant EPs). This paper presents information about the role and effectiveness of this pre‐training Assistant EP programme. The role of the Assistant EP was identified as including: individual and group level casework, projects, applied research, and delivering training, under the direct supervision of EPs. All Assistant EP work was evaluated using a range of measures. Outcomes showed that intervention targets (as agreed using the Target Monitoring and Review form) were consistently met or exceeded. Key stakeholders perceived Assistant EPs to be a valuable and flexible resource and Assistant EPs felt that the role prepared them well for applying for professional training courses. The paper concludes with a brief discussion around the future role of pre‐training Assistant EPs.     

An evaluation of consultation sessions for foster carers and adoptive parents

The aim of the study was to examine whether consultation sessions provided by educational psychologists (EPs) offer a useful way of supporting foster and adoptive parents. Feedback was collected from 101 EPs and 78 foster and adoptive parents through the use of a short questionnaire at the end of each session. As might be expected, educational issues were the main focus of the sessions, although other areas such as behaviour management and emotional well-being were also addressed. In general, both EPs and carers were enthusiastic about the sessions, with carers reporting that they found it helpful to be able to discuss their concerns, receive practical advice, set goals and gain a new insight into their situation. These findings were supported by an increase in carers’ feelings of confidence, and a decrease in their feelings of concern, following the sessions. Such findings endorse the use of EP-led consultation sessions as a means of supporting foster and adoptive parents.     

Educational psychology in the news

Play training is adult intervention aimed at enhancing the quality of children's play. Results of early research indicated that this type of training not only improved the level of children's play but also led to gains in intelligence, language development, problem solving, conservation attainment, and perspective taking. Several more recent studies, however, have had less positive results, bringing into question the value of this type of intervention. This article raises a number of conceptual issues about research design in the play-training literature, including questions about context, individual differences, effect sizes, durability of outcomes, and selection of dependent variables. These questions are examined in order to explain the absence of some of the anticipated benefits of play training and to suggest directions for future research.     

A positive future for educational psychology – if the profession gets it right

Recent Annual Courses of the Association of Educational Psychologists (2006–2008) have each focused on aspects of positive psychology either in keynote speeches or in workshops. This paper argues that whilst educational psychologists (EPs) are right to be positive about the future, the profession is currently undergoing a period of rapid change and uncertainty that will likely bring its own discomfort and challenges. EPs will not be immune from the emotional impact of change and stress and it is imperative to be positive, forward looking and skilled at scoping the evolving environment in order to take advantage of developing opportunities. Additionally, practising professionals should not underestimate the importance of individual casework, assessment and therapeutic interventions and ensure they are sufficiently skilled to be able to undertake this work in conjunction with their existing activities. It is argued that although the profession does have the potential for a vibrant future, it is incumbent upon participating professionals to get it right by being seen as relevant to the current challenges.     

The Reliability,Validity and Evaluation of the Objective Structured Clinical Examination in Podiatry (Chiropody)

The objective structured clinical examination (OSCE), initially developed for use in undergraduate medical training, has been adapted for use for the assessment of clinical skills in podiatry (chiropody) students. The introduction of this system of examination was accompanied by a 12‐month evaluation programme where issues of validity, repeatability, and stability of student performance over time were considered. The evaluation programme revealed relatively low levels of repeatability, high levels of construct and criterion validity, and good stability, of performance over time. Participating students were also surveyed for their level of acceptance of this format of clinical examination. Students demonstrated an overwhelming acceptance and support of the OSCE.     

Piagetian constructivism and the concept of mediated learning experience

The different tools of learning potential assessment rest on a mediation stage of some learning experience between a pre-test and a post-test. Althouth mediation might correspond to a broad range of educative behaviors, in these tools, as can be seen in this issue, it most often takes the form of quite direct instructions of cognitive strategies or of more general solving principles: As if the subject’s own activity would be totally substituted by the mediation during a mediated learning experience. From a constructivist conception of the development this view of the nature of mediation is indeed too narrow and too restrictive and raises some basic questions: What might be the meaning of a cognitive potential revealed only by direct instruction? How to relate learning potential and cognitive development? How to transform potentialities in subsequent cognitive development. This paper tackles these issues from a discussion of the Feuerstein’s distinction of mediated learning experience versus learning by direct exposure to sources of stimuli. From a constructivist view of cognitive functioning and cognitive development, it tries to broaden what mediation might be in the assessment of learning potential as well as in cognitive education programs.     

The strength-based approach to educational psychology practice: a critique from social constructionist and systemic perspectives

The positive psychological research underpinning the strength-based approach makes two important claims of relevance to the practice of educational psychologists (EPs): (1) there are key, ubiquitous strengths, some of which are more worthy of development and amplification than others; and (2) this approach could resolve some of the issues associated with the traditional deficit model, by moving practice away from problem-focused language, negative labelling and within-person hypotheses. This paper aims to explore these two claims from social constructionist and systemic perspectives, respectively. It is argued that it is imperative for EPs to critically reflect on the research underpinning this approach and to consider how the principles of social constructionism and systemic thinking may facilitate its application in practice. It is concluded that, in order to move the approach forward, it will be essential for personalised strength-based approaches, which consider an individual’s strengths contextually, to be developed and utilised.     

The effect of processing depth on ESL reading comprehension

This study investigated the effect of depth of processing on second-language reading comprehension. It was hypothesized that questions which entailed shallow cognitive processing would be easier to answer than questions which entailed deeper cognitive processing. Three of the four research hypotheses were confirmed. Previous training (or lack of it) may account for why one of the predictions was not confirmed. This paper concludes with a cautionary note about the types of reading performance teachers can expect, and the recognition of open-ended testing techniques in secondlanguage reading assessment.