Democracy in teacher education: Equality verses excellence

Abstract

This article discusses the difßculties that face colleges of education as they attempt to work with students who have special needs—disabilities, oral communication deficits, and emotional adjustment problems. Presenting a case study of faculty in the College of Education (COE) at a mid‐sized regional university, the article explores the dilemma resulting from efforts to mediate between those educators concerned with providing equality of opportunity and those concerned with upholding standards of excellence. At the COE in question, faculty opinions became polarized, with some faculty advocating “equality” and others advocating “standards.” From its analysis of faculty members' difficulties in resolving this dilemma, the article draws implications for democratic practice in teacher education.     

A Method of Equalizing the Rating of Teachers

Abstract

The effects of students' conceptual levels and teachers' instruction patterns on students' motivation to learn academic course content were investigated. An examination of 63 students enrolled in a course entitled “Motivation and Performance in Organizations” at West Point yielded statistically significant interactions: For low-conceptual-level students, direct teaching methods maximize motivation to learn course content; for high-conceptual-level students, nondirect instruction significantly enhances motivation. These results expand existing educational literature that suggests that proper conceptual level/instruction pattern matches enhance students' motivation in the classroom. Educators may use this knowledge to develop teaching environments that support the specific learning needs of individual students.     

Science Process Skills and Cognitive Preference Styles

The study examined the differences in cognitive styles between two comparable groups of students at the Grade 9 (Secondary 3) level, namely the LSS (Lower Secondary Science) group who had been exposed to the practical-based, inquiry-oriented type of science and the non-LSS group of students who had studied the more traditional type of science in the “old” science curriculum. Their differences in science achievement are measured by the common IEA Science Paper-Pencil, Multiple Choice Criterion Test and also, by the Science Process or Practical Test (which measured three levels of process skills, such as the observation/manipulation, reasoning and investigation skills). Variance in science achievement thus measured is examined against the 4 cognitive preference styles of the students, (measured by the Combined Cognitive Preference Inventory) namely the “recall”, “principles”, “applications” and “questioning” modes of thinking. The findings indicated that (a) the attainment of the science process or practical skills was characterised by the type of science curriculum (LSS or non-LSS) and it was significantly associated with the achievement level of students, (b) the cognitive preference pattern covaried according to the students' level of science achievement and the type of curriculum and (c) the weak but significant relationship between performance in the science practical skills and the students' modes of cognitive style have important implications for teachers who are concerned about the intended effects of changes in the science curriculum on the consequent learning behaviour or cognitive outcome of their students.     

Public education: The next generation

Abstract

Keith Stanovich (1986) uses a biblical allusion the “Matthew Effect”; when discussing the acquisition of reading Stanovich (1986) claimed that in the acquisition of reading, as with the acquisition of what are deemed to be many of life's prizes, the mote one has, the more one gets This is often expressed as the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer In essence, when a student has demonstrated high skills within an area, they are encouraged to increase this ability with extra practice, resulting in even higher standards. The characteristics of the Gifted and Learning Disabled (GLD) student generally mean that the student will display subject‐specific weaknesses, subject‐specific strengths and often have poor organisational skills. Some GLD students may display academic weakness across the curriculum and demonstrate their ability with higher order thinking skills purely orally! Gifted students without a specific learning disability do not display such extremes in their academic endeavors. Thus, the “Matthew Effect”; when applied (in reverse) to the GLD student means that where a student has an underlying academic weakness, enjoyment of that subject is decreased, practice is limited, and standards are not raised to a level commensurate with intellectual potential. That is in the case of many GLD students, the poor get poorer (obviously, this would depend upon the level of specific learning disability, as some students are barely affected at all). Inevitably, success in school subjects links directly to motivation, perceptions of self‐ efficacy and self‐image. It should be no surprise that successful students are motivated, have high expectations of self‐efficacy, and good self image. Successful students would have positive affective characteristics, and thus, unsuccessful students would have the reverse.

It is important to define what is meant by assistive technology, as it could be argued that a rubber pencil grip or even a ruler might be considered assistive technology (Bryant &; Bryant: 1998, Bryant, Erin, Lock, Allan &; Resta: 1998; Lewis: 1998). Raskind and Higgins (1998:27) supply the following definition of assistive technology as “any technology that enables an individual with LD to compensate for specific deficits.”; Lewis (1998: 16) says that it is “any technology with the potential to enhance the performance of persons with disabilities”;. Lewis (1998) continues by saying that the purpose of assistive technology is firstly, to build on one's strengths, counterbalancing any weaknesses, and secondly, to provide alternative ways of performing a task. Indeed, Lewis (1998 17) likens assistive technology to a “cognitive prosthesis”;. The focus of this article will be on electronic assistive technology, with an emphasis on software programs suitable for use by middle and upper secondary gifted and learning disabled students. Thus, access and accommodation are key words. The ability of a student to access required programs and differentiation by accommodation are vital issues at the heart of electronic assistive technology. A definition of Gifted and Learning Disabled would (loosely) be, any gifted student who also has a specific learning disability. Students such as these will display elements of giftedness and elements of a specific learning disability Emphasis will be on the development of academic strengths, not on remediation of academic weaknesses. It is not the intention of this article to review interactive software programs which supply remedial work for phonics awareness, language, mathematical or reading difficulties. Reviews of such programs are available through subject‐interest journals or software suppliers.     

A Test of the Segregation Premise

ABSTRACT

Concerns have been raised over the potential of charter schools to re-segregate the nation's schools. This concern has been expressed mostly with respect to students with disabilities and with respect to ethnic and/or racial minorities. In this study, the enrollment statistics for charter and contiguous non-charter public schools in a large urban district were compared with each other and with district enrollment averages by school level (elementary, middle, and senior schools). Findings indicated that very few enrollment percentages of charters and of noncharters were comparable with District averages on gender, ethnicity, participation in the free/reduced lunch program (FRL), limited English proficiency (LEP), and students in exceptional student education (ESE). Indeed, contiguous charter and non-charter public schools were more likely to resemble each other than District averages. However, charters and non-charters differed significantly from each other on the number of schools that had “low” and “high” enrollments of students participating in FRL, of LEP, and of ESE students.     

Effects of Item Modifications on Test Accessibility for Persistently Low-Performing Students with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Construct-irrelevant cognitive complexity of some items in the statewide grade-level assessments may impose performance barriers for students with disabilities who are ineligible for alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards. This has spurred research into whether items can be modified to reduce complexity without affecting item construct. This study uses a generalized linear mixed modeling analysis to investigate the effects of item modifications on improving test accessibility by reducing construct-irrelevant cognitive barriers for persistently low-performing fifth-grade students with cognitive disabilities. The results showed item scaffolding was an effective modification for both mathematics and reading. Other modifications, such as bolding/underlining of key words, hindered test performance for low-performing students. We discuss the findings’ potential impact on test development with universal design.     

Classification of children with learning problems and the establishment of special classes in Delaware from the 1930s to the mid-1940s

ABSTRACT

This study focuses on J. E. Wallace Wallin, who recognised the rights of children with disabilities to receive an education, and who tackled the scientific classification of children and the provision of special classes in the state of Delaware from the 1930s to the middle of the 1940s. This study intends to clarify how Wallin recognised and classified children who exhibited learning problems, and how he provided an educational environment for them. Wallin advocated the democratic philosophy of providing differentiated education based on the individual differences among children. He classified children with learning problems as “mentally deficient”, “backward”, and “special subject-matter disabilities”. He also recommended special educational treatment in not only special classes but also regular classes. He insisted that regular class teachers and special class teachers share the responsibility of educating children with disabilities. However, in addition to tailoring education based on the diversity exhibited by children with learning problems, it is essential to tailor it for disabled children in public school special classes established in their communities. In terms of both human and material resources, it was difficult to address learning problems suitably in regular classes while improving the quality and quantity of education in special classes.     

The Relationship of Teachers' Instructional Decisions and Beliefs about Alternate Assessments to Student Achievement

In the decade since alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards (AA-AAS) were first required, special education teachers have had to develop content knowledge and pedagogical skills to teach academics to students with significant cognitive disabilities. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact that teachers' instructional decisions and beliefs about AA-AAS have on the academic achievement of students with significant cognitive disabilities. A survey of nearly 400 teachers across three states provided evidence of teachers' beliefs, as well as their instructional planning processes for students. Students' learning characteristics were also identified. Survey responses were analyzed in conjunction with students' 2010–2011 scores on their statewide AA-AAS. The results indicated that students with presymbolic communication systems had a lower likelihood of achieving proficiency in English language arts/reading and math than students with abstract symbolic communication. Students with concrete symbolic communication systems had lesser odds of proficiency in ELA/reading but not in math. Teachers who agreed that AA-AAS had an impact on instruction tended to have students with higher achievement proficiency. However, more negative views of the validity of AA-AAS scores were associated with greater odds of proficiency.     

The Common Core State Standards and Reading: Interpretations and Implications for Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

The K‐5 reading standards within the English Language Arts Common Core State Standards provide guidance to teachers about grade level expectations for students. Though the authors of the standards acknowledge that some students may experience difficulty reaching the rigorous expectations, they explain that the standards outline a pathway to proficiency for all students, including those who struggle with literacy. Students with learning disabilities, who often have significant literacy difficulties, may face particular challenges when their instruction is framed by these standards. This article unpacks the complex K‐5 reading standards and provides a discussion of the implications for students with learning disabilities and their general and special education teachers. Examples from K‐5 lessons and recommendations for teachers and researchers are provided.     

Educational Expectations: How They Differ Around the World: Implications for Teaching ESL College Students

Expectations regarding teacher-student relationships, classroom interactions, testing and evaluation, and academic integrity vary widely around the world. Understanding these differences can be critical to enhancing the academic success of ESL(English as a Second Language) college students. Faculty working with ESL students often ask: “Why won't my students participate more in class?” “Why do my students only repeat back what I've said?” “Why won't they tell me what they think?” “Why don't they ever know what courses they want to take when they come to registration or advisement?” Students often ask: “Why does my professor keep asking me to talk about my personal experiences? We never had to do that in my country. Why is it such a big deal to do that here?” There are a lot of “why's” floating around the campus. This article addresses some of these questions.     

“Equal Time” and “Equal Voice”

ABSTRACT

This paper outlines the development, implementation, and qualitative and quantitative evaluations of a foundation research course structured to give “equal time” and “equal voice” to both qualitative and quantitative research content. Assessment of this integrative approach suggested that students' gain in qualitative research knowledge was strongly correlated with their gain in quantitative research knowledge (r = .653, p > .0005), and some students believed “I am better able to evaluate my practice” as a result of taking this course.     

EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS: WRITING TO EXPLORE PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

Abstract

This study examined the perceptions and practices of certified preschool teachers and children regarding play. A sample of 102 Pre‐Kindergarten regular (Pre‐K regular) teachers and 61 Pre‐Kindergarten with disabilities (Pre‐K with disabilities) teachers in an urban school district were surveyed. A sub‐group of 46 teachers and 72 4‐year‐old children were interviewed. In contrast to teachers in a previous study who did not have teacher certification, the teachers in the present study believed that play supported children's learning and development and indicated that play was an integral part of their curriculum. Approximately 30% of the teachers who were interviewed said they did not allow children's rough and tumble play either because they thought it was dangerous or it would promote aggression. All of the Pre‐K with disabilities teachers and half of Pre‐K regular teachers said they provided support for play of children with disabilities in their classes. Their reported support focused more on cognitive aspects of play than on social interactions. Children's ideas about play were similar to those in the 1987 study.     

Generic skills assessment: A new problem for tertiary students with learning disabilities

Abstract

A simmering controversy has been running in the United States since 1995 over the perceived conflict between the maintenance of academic standards and the rights of disabled university students. Recent developments are set to raise the same issue in Australian universities. The first of these developments is the shift in the emphasis of academic standards with the implementation of the Generic Skills Assessment (GSA) program. The second is the release of draft disability standards for education to streamline enforcement of the Commonwealth's Disability Discrimination Act (DDA).

The DDA protects disabled people against discrimination in education. Amongst the many types of disabled people protected are those who are unable to read, write or communicate effectively because of learning disabilities, and others who are unable to concentrate and pay attention properly because of mental disorders. Hitherto, universities have found ways to comply with the DDA without compromising academic standards by providing these types of disabled students with accommodations that take the form of alternative methods of examination, extra exam time, technological assistance, scribes, readers, etc. However, the GSA has been designed for standardised implementation and doesn't allow for this type of flexibility. Further, generic skills testing specifically discriminates against students with learning disabilities and some mental disorders because it is the inability to master particular types of generic skills that defines these types of disabilities.     

Common Core Science Standards: Implications for Students with Learning Disabilities

The Common Core Science Standards represent a new effort to increase science learning for all students. These standards include a focus on English and language arts aspects of science learning, and three dimensions of science standards, including practices of science, crosscutting concepts of science, and disciplinary core ideas in the various subject areas. Many of these issues bring important implications for students with learning disabilities, which we discuss in turn. With appropriate supports and applications, students with learning disabilities can potentially benefit greatly from these new standards. However, the demands of these standards may require a higher level of support than those commonly available for many students with learning disabilities.     

The Nacirema revisited: A pedagogical tool for teaching criminological theory

Modeled after Horace Miner's classic article “The Body Ritual of the Nacirema,” an explanation of modern day Nacirema undergraduates as “academic deviants” is used as a pedagogical tool for negotiating criminological theory. Similar to the question, why do people commit crime, this paper asks why are some students “criminal”, i.e., poor students?     

Field Instruction and the Mature Student

Abstract

As increasing numbers of mature students enter schools of social work, it is a challenge and an obligation for field instructors to discover ways to recruit and sustain them in the educational endeavor. Building upon three theoretical perspectives-Freire's pedagogy of the oppressed, Knowles's andragogy, and Schon's reflective learning and teaching, this paper highlights ways in which field instructors can build upon the strengths of mature students to enhance their development as professional social workers. It discusses “parallel process”, “learning styles”, and “contracting” as proactive strategies to fully engage mature students in attaining a graduate degree.     

A Comparison of Students' Predictions of Rank Order on Proximate and Remote Tasks

Abstract

Students’ expectations of relative academic achievement tend to decline over time. “High” and “low” ranking students alike tend to make lower predictions of final class standing at mid-course than at the beginning In the absence of feed-back supporting other conclusions. Moreover, In predicting relative achievement in successive competitive tasks, “high” and “low” students alike tend to predict much lower ranking on the proximate task than the remote task. This phenomenon has Implications for the allocation of counseling efforts to adjust students' expectations to their realistic academic prospects.

It has also been found that graduate students’ predictions of final letter-grades can be quite ambiguous with respect to their expectations of final class rank.