A Bourdieusian analysis of cultural reproduction: socialisation and the ‘hidden curriculum’ in professional football

This article draws on the theoretical concepts of Pierre Bourdieu to provide an explanatory account of how socialisation and the hidden curriculum within coaching practice contribute toward the formation of social identities and powerful schemes of internalised dispositions. Drawing on a 10 month ethnography within professional football, the research found that day-to-day practice was ideologically laden and served the production, reproduction and incorporation of socialised agents into the prevailing ‘legitimate’ culture. The legitimacies embodied included respect for authority, hierarchical awareness, control, obedience, collectivity, work ethic and winning.     

From childhood to senior professional football: elite youth players’ engagement in non-football activities

Abstract

Despite the large amount of research available on how engagement in football practice relates to future performance level among football players, similar information about the contribution of non-football activities is scarce. Based on data from 745 elite youth players this study aimed to identify the characteristics and contribution of diverse participation towards elite youth and senior professional status. The data were collected using a retrospective questionnaire where the players reported the amount of time spent in other sports than football, in addition to their perceived contribution of different non-football activities for developing football skills. The accumulated hours of time spent in other sports of players who had obtained a senior professional contract were compared to non-professional players, using multilevel modelling (n = 558), while a t-test compared the activity ratings to each other. No significant differences were identified between professional and non-professional players’ engagement history, but overall, the players rated sports similar to football to be significantly more relevant for developing football skills than other sports. The results suggests that spending time in non-football activities did not contribute to present differences in performance attainment in football, but also that potential advantages of such activities may be related to their characteristics.     

Attacking beautifully or defending efficiently? A sociological analysis of the prevalence and effect of football strategies

Football ideology is built upon an antagonism between offensive and defensive and effective and beautiful football: attack beautifully and lose, or, defend efficiently and win! In this article, I address the validity of this hegemonic understanding and investigate the extent to which (i) modern football actually practises one or the other – scoring goals or avoids conceding – and (ii) how the two strategies actually pay off. The case is 65 years of Scandinavian male football. I start with an overview of numbers of scored goals and variation in scoring. Next, I look at whether success depends on scoring the most or conceding the least. Finally, I analyse how many positions each goal is worth. In general terms, the finding is a defensive trend where modern football has fewer and more valuable goals, but that this trend has clear wavelike patterns, indicating that which strategy being profitable varies.     

What is influencing the dropout behaviour of youth players from organised football?

This article provides a systematised review of relevant factors influencing youth dropout from organised football. The findings of identified 30 studies concerning dropout behaviour in football indicate the multidimensional influences of intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors. Most studies investigate the influence of intrapersonal factors. Accordingly, negatively perceived football competence, lack of motivation, goals and incentives and a lower relative age lead to a higher dropout rate. At the interpersonal level, lack of support from significant others (parents, peers, coach) and a disadvantageous team situations promote withdrawal from organised youth football. A lack of organisational and structural conditions promote dropout too. Based on this review, the following identified research gaps should be addressed in future studies: (1) analysis of individuals’ dropout decision as a selection of available alternatives, (2) referencing to corresponding contextual features of dropout behaviour, (3) the longitudinal perspective at dropout behaviour and (4) the perspective of intervention. Furthermore, some practical implications can be derived for the management of youth members in football clubs: (1) strengthen and develop successive coaching competencies, (2) reflection of own club philosophy against the background of divergent expectations of adolescents, (3) measures to promote identification with the football club and (4) anchoring of orientation regarding to young players as a central objective in the club.     

An exploration of young professional football players’ perceptions of the talent development process in England

The identification and development of players in English professional football has become an increasingly significant topic of debate given the historical perceived underperformance of the English national team at international tournaments. To enhance understanding of the challenges and barriers experienced by English youth footballers, the authors explore the developmental experiences of English professional football players from different levels of the English football pyramid. Professional players (N = 11) from football clubs in the top four professional divisions in England took part in individual semi-structured interviews, which were analysed inductively using thematic analysis. The data revealed three interrelated themes that were perceived to mediate player identification and development pathways at professional clubs. Pathways for young players to progress and experience first-team competitive football differed when the level of the league that the players operated within was considered, with significant issues also raised relating to the suitability of the under 21 league structure, the importance attached to the educational welfare of young players, and variations in the identification of player attributes. This study sheds new light on the priorities and processes of talent development and education provision in English football.     

‘Glocal’ processes in peripheral football countries: a figurational sociological comparison of Finland and Hungary

The aim of this article is to increase the understanding of the global and local contexts in football by finding out what social, cultural and economic dimensions seem to characterize ‘periphery’ football. This study applies figurational sociological perspective, which is applicable to the research on globalization processes and sport. The sources utilized are publications on the history and sociology of football as well as interviews with football practitioners. First, a theoretical framework of the global football figuration is advanced. Second, applying the constructed framework, the concept of periphery football country is discussed. It was found in accordance with previous research that instead of the rigid conceptualization of peripheral football, the various developmental patterns of countries should be studied. Third, the diverse development paths of Finnish and Hungarian football are analysed and compared. It is suggested that in spite of being peripheral, both countries have been increasingly integrated into the global football figuration.     

‘They are able to play football in South Africa’: Austria’s ‘little Wunderteam’ on tour in 1936

From the end of the nineteenth century South Africa had become a popular touring destination for British and colonial sports teams. Tours in the popular sport of cricket, football and rugby were very popular. These tours tested local opposition against foreign competition, brought in revenue to local and national sports associations and contributed to the development of a white South African identity. Austrian football teams were extensive travellers and popular attractions around the world. Prior to the Second World War Austrian football was highly regarded and was able to compete and hold its own against English and Scottish clubs and representative teams. This article considers an unusual tour by a combined Viennese football team to South Africa in 1936. We consider the preparations for the tour, the different playing styles and the way in which the visitors were received around the country. At the broader political level, the tour was important as leading South African politicians and Austrian diplomats attended matches and functions while on tour. This can be understood in the context of both countries attempting to flex their political identity and muscle in light of more dominant neighbours and colonial masters.     

The ‘aggressive style’: genesis of an ambiguous resource for Swiss hockey and football players

In this study, we investigated what drives players to endorse an aggressive style in Swiss ice hockey and football. We selected a sample of 16 players on the basis of their penalty statistics. We used semi-directed retrospective interviews to collect players’; biographic narratives. The results show a socialization process into an aggressive style, supported by the dominant gender and socialization norms of the sport, which is under the influence of the structure of the sports organization. However, there are large differences between players, with only some of them adopting an aggressive style. Although many studies have underlined the influence of moral disengagement, the present results suggest that time also matters and that the diversity of career paths may explain the diversity in attitudes. Socialization differences in the sports field, bodily capital, a career path marked by thwarted reputation are the key factors that drive players to adopt an aggressive style.     

A Kantian view of Suits’ Utopia: ‘a kingdom of autotelically-motivated game players’

In this paper, I engage the debate on Suits’ theory of games by providing a Kantian view of Utopia. I argue that although the Kantian aspects of Suits’ approach are often overlooked in comparison to its Socratic-Platonic aspects, Kant’s ideas play a fundamental role in Suits’ proposal. In particular, Kant’s concept of ‘regulative idea’ is the basis of Suits’ Utopia. I regard Utopia as Suits’ regulative idea on game playing. In doing so, I take Utopia to play a double role in Suits’ theory of games. First, it highlights the primary condition of possibility of game-playing, namely, the lusory attitude. Second, it provides a normative criterion that serves as a critical principle to evaluate instances of game playing and as a counterfactual assumption that makes game playing possible. I provide further support for my Kantian interpretation of Suits’ Utopia by bringing to light the anthropological assumptions upon which Utopia is built. In doing so, I argue that both Suits’ theory of games, in general, and his Utopia, in particular, lay out the conditions of possibility of game playing, not an analysis on the life most worth living.     

I am sailing—towards a transactional analysis of ‘body techniques’

In recent years there has been a growing interest in questions related to embodiment and learning. Within the field of ‘body pedagogics’ great efforts have been made to develop theory and methodology that can deal with the corporeal aspects of experience and knowledge without adopting any form of dualistic conceptions of body/mind and organism/environment. This article connects to this body of research. The purpose is to first present a synthesis of James' radical empiricism, Dewey's transactional understanding of experience and learning and Marcel Mauss' concept of ‘body techniques’ and the notion of education embedded in it. Against the background of this theoretical development, and with a Transactional Model of Analyzing Bodying (TMAB), we then show how we can analytically come to terms with different dualistic problems that research into ‘body pedagogics’ has to deal with. We use an empirical example of dinghy sailing to create knowledge about what we learn when learning embodied knowledge, and how this learning takes place. We argue that experience is an important concept for understanding the acting knowing human being, describing how experience is organized and developed and outlining how this organization can be understood as learning. We hold that situations where someone learns to embody certain knowledge are cases of overt actions, in which we can see what kinds of relations are created and how these relations become meaningful for further action.     

A critical analysis of the conceptualisation of ‘coaching philosophy’

The aim of this paper was to critically review existing literature relating to, and critically analyse current conceptualisations of, ‘coaching philosophy’. The review reveals a bewildering approach to definitions, terms and frameworks that have limited explanation and reveal a lack of conceptual clarity. It is argued that rather than provide clarification and understanding the existing literature conflates coaching rhetoric and ideology with coaching philosophy and serves to reproduce existing coaching discourse rather than explain coaching practice. The paper problematises the unquestioned assumptions currently underpinning ‘coaching philosophy’; namely the overemphasis of coaches' agency and reflexivity, the downplaying of the significance of social structure on coaches' dispositions and the acceptance that coaching practice is an entirely conscious activity. The paper argues for an alternative philosophy of coaching that uses philosophic thinking to help coaches question existing ideology, and critically evaluate the assumptions and beliefs underpinning their practice.     

Comment on ‘Performance analysis in football: A critical review and implications for future research’

Abstract

MacKenzie and Cushion (2013) recently reviewed performance analysis research in association football (soccer). Their critical review focused on several themes related to methodological approaches such as sample size, match context and operational definitions and the implications of research findings to professional practice. In this response letter, we comment on additional pragmatic concerns regarding these key themes as well as some of the difficulties commonly faced when conducting performance analysis research.     

‘A lesson in football wisdom’? Coverage of the unofficial women’s World Cup of 1971 in the Mexican press

ABSTRACT

When Mexico hosted the 1971 Women’s World Cup, it raised considerable challenges for local journalists. The domestic game had never received significant press attention, but mounting public interest in such a prestigious tournament demanded a response from national and sporting newspapers. In this chapter, we analyse the extent to which the masculine hegemonic environment of the newsroom dictated the perspective, language, and imagery deployed by journalists in their reports. While underlying sexism and cynicism characterised more traditional, conservative sections of the printed media, our analysis reveals a surprising degree of willingness to adapt and learn new ways. In tracing the dynamics of this process we assess the extent to which a more enlightened appreciation of Mexican women’s football only lasted for as long as they continued to win matches.     

More decision-aid technology in sport? An analysis of football supporters’ perceptions on goal-line technology

The introduction of decision-aid technology in sport, such as goal-line technology (GLT) in football, has generated minimal literature on supporters’ perspectives. This paper aims to investigate Scottish football supporters’ perceptions towards GLT. Two hundred and seventy Scottish supporters completed a questionnaire to assess their satisfaction with GLT and factors that influence their level of satisfaction. The majority of Scottish supporters trust the technology applied in football and favours its use. However, they are dissatisfied with GLT in part because GLT is considered to detract from the atmosphere resulting from contentious goals which supporters appreciate and lessen the debate around crucial decisions. Findings also showed that football supporters are against GLT viewing in the stadium and do not welcome future decision-aid technology in football.     

A level playing ‘field’? A Bourdieusian analysis of the career aspirations of further education students on sports courses

There is currently a distinct dearth of research into how sports students' career aspirations are formed during their post-compulsory education. This article, based on an ethnographic study of sport students in tertiary education, draws on data collected from two first-year cohorts (n = 34) on two different courses at a further education college in England. The study draws on ethnographic observations, and semi-structured group interviews, to examine in-depth the contrasting occupational perspectives emergent within these two groups of mainly working-class students, and how specific cultural practices affect students' career aspirations. Utilising a Bourdieusian framework, the paper analyses the internalised, often latent cultural practices that impact upon these students' diverse career aspirations. The hitherto under-researched dimension of inter-habitus interaction and also the application of doxa are outlined. The article reveals how the two student cohorts are situated within a complex field of relations, where struggles for legitimisation, academic accomplishment and numerous forms of lucrative capital become habituated. The study offers salient Bourdieusian-inspired insights into the career aspirations of these predominantly working-class students and the ways in which certain educational practices contribute to the production and reproduction of class inequalities.     

‘Five goals,no boots’: an interrogation of the politics,play and racialised athleticism of late colonial football tours to England, 1949–1959

ABSTRACT

This essay explores a series of football tours from Britain's colonies in Africa and the Caribbean to Britain between the years 1949 and 1959. It examines the different desired political and diplomatic functions of the visits from a variety of perspectives, as well as considering the importance of sporting performance and football in particular in fulfilling these functions. Utilising academic work on body cultures as well as critical race theory, it interrogates the coverage and analysis of such tours in multiple outlets of the British media, with particular reference to the different racialisations players from these territories were subject to throughout the period, as well as how racial perceptions were projected, solidified and reconstructed through play and the existing technologies of reception in Britain. Finally, it stresses the importance of localised, seemingly innocuous settings (such as the lower league football stadium) in formulating meaning and signifying identity during the period.     

Beyond the reach of FIFA: football and community ‘development’ in rural South Africa,towards a politics of inclusion and sustainability

The real legacy of the 2010 World Cup is that people in the focus areas of Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg–Tshwane may have received some benefit from infrastructural development while much of the rest of South Africa has fallen further behind those globally projecting conurbations. Though the literature on sport and community development is growing rapidly as is work on legacy and mega events, there are few studies that examine initiatives generated within local communities, particularly those located well away from the activities of international sport development agencies. In this paper, we examine a village football team in rural Mpondoland in the far reaches of the Eastern Cape located well away from the impact of World Cup football-related initiatives. We also explore activities of international sport development agencies. We examine the motivations of the players, the community role that football plays and how community-generated initiatives might be supported and nurtured with full involvement and democratic decision-making practices embedded into the operation of local sporting groups. Understanding the hurdles faced in resource-strapped communities will enhance discussion of the ways in which sporting development can be supported rather than imposed and become sustainable in the future.     

Loyal to what? FC United's ‘shaping walk’ through football's ‘muck of ages’

This paper considers the cultural politics surrounding the formation and development of FC United of Manchester. Established in 2005 by boycotting Manchester United fans following their failed attempt to prevent Malcolm Glazer's takeover, FC United was envisaged as a radical, do-it-yourself version of the football club they wanted Manchester United to be. Driven by an idea that football and its clubs should be run in the interests of community stakeholders rather than financial investors, the supporters rejected what they saw as the more compliant and commodified relationship now demanded by attendance at or consumption of top-level English football. The paper examines how traditional notions of authenticity are articulated and understood by supporters who either embrace or reject the notion of a DIY football club. Political as well as cultural capital is at stake, disrupting traditional values of loyalty. The ambivalence experienced by increasing numbers of contemporary fans means that continuity and change seem never far apart, with football supporter culture facilitating, often simultaneously, both a yearning for what might be along with a fear for what might be lost.