Can agricultural research and extension be used to challenge the processes of exclusion and marginalisation?

Purpose: This paper examines if and how agricultural researchers and extension officers can see, understand and change processes that exclude some people and influence marginalisation.

Design and methodology: We used participatory action research (PAR) in a programme building sustainable farming practices for nutrition and income in Solomon Islands as our case study. Two qualitative PAR data streams were analysed: (i) documentation of community activities over three years including action planning, learning activities, training workshops, focus group discussions, key informant and informal interviews and (ii) documentation of the research teams’ own learning and reflection sessions.

Findings: Agricultural research and learning activities facilitated through PAR can help researchers and extension officers see, understand and challenge processes that cause social exclusion and marginalisation and lead to inequitable access to agricultural opportunities. A combination of (i) starting with a collective vision; (ii) facilitating systematic reflection exercises; and (iii) having locally tuned facilitators creating safe spaces; makes processes of social exclusion tangible, discussable and ultimately actionable, illustrating the potential of the research and extension processes to facilitate social change in real time.

Theoretical Implications: The paper makes a contribution to the growing body of theory and literature on innovation systems and people-centred approaches to agricultural development, by highlighting the facilitation challenges and opportunities that can create more learning focused and power-aware agricultural programming.

Practical Implications: Our approach, examined in this paper, can improve implementation of policies such as the Solomon Islands Agriculture and Livestock Sector Policy (2015–2019), which aims for active participation of women and youth in agricultural development.

Originality: Using a PAR approach to discover how agricultural research and extension activities can help transform the processes that cause social exclusion and create disadvantage and marginalisation.     

Strengthening the linkages between research and extension in agricultural higher education institutions in developing countries

This article provides background information on the conditions and limitations of the integrated system teaching, research and extension in agricultural higher education institutions in developing countries as a development strategy. A theoretical framework for the interface between research and extension is discussed. A typological model is proposed to explain external and internal linkage factors. Organizational and operational linkage strategies are suggested. Given this set of linkage factors, because of underlying infrastructure, human resource, and organizational advantage, research and extension programs conducted by these institutions are envisaged to be very effective.     

The gender of the extension agent and farmers' access to and participation in agricultural extension in Nigeria

Abstract

A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of male and female extension agents in reaching farmers, especially women, with extension services in Nigeria. Specially the study determined the levels of awareness of and participation in extension activities, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended agricultural technologies/practices, satisfaction with the quality of extension services provided and agents' credibility of men and women farmers under male and female extension agents supervision. Data gathered from 141 men and 72 women farmers supervised by male agents and 22 men and 93 women farmers supervised by female agents in Oyo, Kaduna and Rivers State Agricultural Development Projects in Nigeria form the empirical basis for the study. Even though men farmers are more aware of and participated more in the extension activities organised by agents than women farmers, the study shows that women farmers, who are supervised by female agents have more access to extension services than women farmers who work with male agents. Specifically, women farmers, who had females for extension agents had relatively higher levels of awareness and participation of the extension activities organised, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended technologies/practices and satisfaction with the quality of agents' services and credibility. These differential effects of female and male agents on women's access to extension are significant for the delivery of extension services to women farmers, especially. Extension organisations must encourage and recruit more females for extension work done at the same time evolve strategies that will help male agents to work better with women farmers.     

The extension of higher education by mass media

This article reports the development of a new phenomenon in the United States described here as national media courses. Such courses use one of the mass media — television, newspapers, radio or magazines — as the essential means of instruction, but supplement the learning thus derived with additional readings and other studies. Usually there are several contact sessions with an instructor to enable students, who otherwise study independently, to meet and exchange ideas or have curricular or administrative questions answered authoritatively. This academic concept uses one of the media designed to reach mass audiences to enable independent learning at times and places of most convenience to the adult audience which they are designed to serve. National media courses are originated at the University Extension at the University of California, San Diego and several other institutions. They are designed to be offered as college courses by two- and four-year post secondary institutions throughout the nation. Nearly one-third have taken advantage of their availability and over fifty thousand students have taken part in a single national media course.

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Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel berichtet von der Entwicklung eines neuen Phänomens in den Vereinigten Staaten, das dort unter dem Namen national media courses bekannt geworden ist. Solche Kurse benutzen eines der Massenmedien — Fernsehen, Zeitungen, Radio oder Zeitschriften — als wichtigstes Unterrichtsmittel, ergänzen aber das dabei stattfindende Lernen durch zusätzliche Lektüre und andere Studien. Gewöhnlich finden etliche Kontaktsitzungen mit einem Instruktor statt, die die Studenten, die sonst unabhängig selbst lernen, befähigen sollen, sich zu treffen, und Gedanken auszutauschen oder sich Fragen des Curriculums oder die Verwaltung betreffend kompetent beantworten zu lassen. Dieses akademische Konzept benutzt eine für die Massenzuhörerschaft konzipiertes Massenmedium, um dem angesprochenen Kreis von Erwachsenen, für die es erdacht wurde, ein in Zeit und Ort angenehmes Lernen zu ermöglichen. National media courses kommen von der Fernabteilung der Universität von Kalifornien, San Diego, und einigen anderen Institutionen. Sie sollen als College-Kurse von postsekundären Institutionen mit drei- oder vierjähriger Studiendauer im ganzen Land angeboten werden. Beinahe ein Drittel der angesprochenen Institutionen hat sich dieser Möglichkeit bedient, und über fünfzigtausend Studenten haben an einem einzigen national media course teilgenommen.

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Résumé Cet article rend compte du développement d'un nouveau phénomène aux Etats-Unis décrit ici comme cours nationaux à l'aide de moyens d'information de masse. De tels cours se servent de l'un des moyens d'information de masse — la télévision, les journaux, la radio ou les magazines — comme procédé essentiel d'instruction, mais complètent l'apprentissage qui en résulte à l'aide de lectures additionnelles et d'autres études. Il y a habituellement plusieurs séances de contact avec un maitre permettant aux étudiants, qui autrement étudient indépendamment, de faire connaissance et d'échanger des idées ou de recevoir une réponse péremptoire aux questions administratives et à celles concernant les curricula. Ce concept académique se sert de l'un des média conçus pour atteindre les audiences des masses, de sorte à permettre un apprentissage indépendant, à des heures et des endroits convenant le mieux à l'audience adulte qu'ils se proposent de servir. Les cours nationaux à l'aide de média tirent leur origine de l'Extension Universitaire à l'Université de la Californie, San Diego et de plusieurs autres institutions. Ils sont conçus pour être présentés comme cours de collège par des institutions post secondaires d'une durée de deux à quatre ans à travers toute la nation. Presque un tiers a déjà tiré profit de leur disponibilité et plus de cinq mille étudiants ont pris à un cours unique national à l'aide de média.

     

Reorienting agricultural extension curricula in India

Abstract

This article discusses how extension should be taught at the undergraduate, M.Sc. and Ph.D level in India. Major changes are needed to prepare students to work in a rapidly changing environment. Extension education is at present in a crisis, because it has not yet adjusted to these changes. As extension graduates are not prepared to perform the roles the market demands, they have difficulties to find a job. In order to prepare the students for the present needs, more training is needed in participatory extension approaches, organizing farmers’ groups, planning extension strategies to meet farmers’ needs, Human Resource Development and the use of Information and Communication Technologies. The students ought to learn how to apply theories in these areas in the field situation. For this purpose not only agricultural graduates, but also other social scientists should participate in teaching extension. It should become clear which students will be trained to become an extension field worker, and extension manager or an extension researcher. J Agr Educ Ext (2000, 7 2, pp 69–78)     

Assessment of farmer-oriented agricultural extension intervention in Iran

Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of farmer-oriented policies as regards the Iranian agricultural extension system. Methodology: To fulfill this objective, a Delphi technique was utilized. The study used a series of three steps, engaging a panel of experts on farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension system. Finding: The characteristics of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system were classified into six categories including: need-based programs, proper interaction among stakeholders, decentralization and higher stakeholders’ participation, enabling stakeholders with emphasis on smallholder farmers, market-oriented programs and integrated policies. The findings indicated that ‘enabling farmers to solve their technical problems’ and ‘engaging farmers in planning, executing and evaluating of the programs’ had the highest percentage of agreement. Theoretical implication: From a theoretical point of view, the finding of this research has introduced six categories as characteristics of a farmer-oriented policy that could have practical implications for agricultural extension system in Iran. Also, this paper proposes a framework for future studies in the field of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system. Practical implications: Recognizing the characteristics of farmer-oriented intervention of agricultural extension shows that targeted extension approaches are needed to pay attention to these characteristics in various stages of planning, delivering and evaluation of extension programs. Originality/value: This paper provides a comprehensive list of characteristics of farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension that can be helpful for agricultural policy-makers in devising programs of extension services.     

Stimulating the imaginative capacities of agricultural extension students

Purpose: To address the dynamic challenges associated with developing a globally sustainable society, numerous scholars have stressed the need to cultivate the imagination of agricultural students. This study aimed to explore how pictorial representations stimulate the imaginative capacities of agricultural extension students. Design/methodology/approach: We adopted a focus group method that enabled in-depth discussions amongst selected participants. Three focus group discussions were held with 15 student participants in Taiwan. Regarding the pictorial representations, a series of works from three great artists were selected, namely Jean-François Millet, Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró. The works were chosen. Findings: The results indicated that different indicators of imaginative capacities were stimulated by different types or combinations of pictorial representations. For example, realistic visual stimuli were beneficial for cultivating student intuition of problem solving. The atmosphere and colour of visual stimuli affected student sensibilities. The abstract stimuli and remote analogues were beneficial in generating original ideas and breaking design fixations. These stimulations occurred largely according to encountering problems and project needs. Practical implications: These findings can assist agricultural educators in developing imaginative curricula and instructional strategies and might increase students’ creative performance. Originality/value: This research provides intriguing insights into the complexities of human imagination. First, the present study developed a novel approach to assess how pictorial representations stimulate the imaginative-capacity indicators of agricultural extension students. Our results indicated that various indicators were stimulated by various types or combinations of pictorial representations, and how and why these stimulations occurred largely depended on design problems and project needs.     

The changing nature of agricultural information and the conflictive global developments shaping extension 1

Abstract

The modernisation of potato production in the Ecuadorian highlands is related to an intensive use of pesticides. In this context, by means of ethnographic methodologies and discourse analysis tools, this study was aimed to determine the influence of household arrangements, local institutions and social differentiation in the management of potato production and pesticide use. Potato production involves all household members and generates occupational risks, but also household-level accidents. This study has determined that children and teenagers form the group most vulnerable to intoxication with pesticides. Four social dimensions that integrate pesticides in the local social dynamics were determined: health-beliefs, gender identity, social identity, and economical progress reliance by means of potato production. Intense potato production and comoditisation of nature is contributing to a progressive social stratification, which is causing a group of peasant households to emerge as the poorest group and vulnerable to occupational risks by chronic pesticide exposure.     

农业院校来华留学生教育管理策略探析

来华留学生管理上存在发展速度快软硬件不协调管理不能及时跟进,留学生汉语水平低适应中国学习生活的准备不足和管理人员队伍建设落后能力构成不尽合理等问题。面对这些问题,需要把来华留学生教育管理列入学校国际化战略规,划加强来华留学生汉语和中国文化的教育,加强来华留学生管理队伍建设,优化管理人员能力结构。     

农业高职院校创业教育的问题与对策

高职院校作为高等教育的重要组成部分,在创业教育方面还相对滞后。文章从农业高职院校自身特点出发,结合当前存在的创业教育定位模糊、专业教师数量偏少、缺乏完善的课程体系等问题,提出相应对策:开展多途径创业思想教育,把创业精神的树立作为第一要务;加强专业化创业教育师资队伍建设,为创业教育打好基础;建立完善的创业组织机构,为学生创业成功保驾护航;以活动为载体营造浓厚的创业氛围,使学生乐于创业;构建多元创业扶持指导体系,提高学生创业成功率;制定分层次的创业教育课程体系,确保教育实效;搭建校内外多形式创业平台,让学生体验创业;设立起飞资金,创业帮扶基金,帮助学生创业。     

中国职业教育的“农村情结”

在我国职业教育二十多年的发展过程中可以发现一个非常明显的特点:每一次涉及到职业教育的发展问题,无论是政府还是学界,几乎无一例外的都要把农村职业教育作为一个专门的话题来谈论。笔者把这一现象称之为中国职业教育的"农村情结"。我国职业教育"农村情结"的形成有其深远的思想基础和社会基础,一方面,存在着经济发展与职业教育发展关系的悖谬、职业教育发展内部关系的悖谬,另一方面,这种矛盾的发展也形成了职业教育发展的巨大推动力。     

Restructuring agricultural extension in the Arab republic of Egypt

Abstract

This paper reviews and recommends strategies for restructuring Egypt's extension policy, organization and delivery. Egypt's extension system is examined with a view to suggesting ways to strengthen its development to meet the accelerating challenges of the global market, high-intensive skill technologies, and the growing demand for organizational efficiencies. The paper is organized into eight sections: strategies for strengthening agricultural extension in Egypt; a critical assessment of the current situation, and a review and recommendations regarding; policy; organizational management; extension linkages; farmer participation in extension program development; the promotion of farmer association, and provides a detailed schema for advancing extension's; field methodology.     

Planning agricultural education in India

Abstract

The study is an attempt to report the growth and status of agricultural education in India and to project a future scenario. The forecast made for trained agricultural manpower is based on socio-economic considerations which are then converted into an educational plan. Issues relating to educational policy to achieve supply-demand adjustments are subsequently discussed. Three main recommendations have emerged from this study. First, the number of diploma holders at the lower end of the professional ladder needs to be increased to cater for the social demand for more trained and readily available manpower to help clientele (farmers) to enhance the level of their awareness concerning technological developments in agriculture. Second, the number of specializations at postgraduate level needs to be decreased and agricultural education needs to be more broad based in commensuration with occupational demands. This would allow skilled and qualified manpower to be directed into areas of employment where they are needed most. Third, the participation of the private sector in the institutionalization of agricultural education may offer healthy competition to state supported agricultural universities and inculcate better entrepreneurship. Finally, recommendations pertaining to the job preferences of graduates and remedies to certain internal inconsistencies such as inbreeding in the system are also made.     

Improving the output of agricultural extension and research through participatory innovation development and extension; experiences from Zimbabwe

Abstract

This paper describes the rationale for a change from conventional extension towards participatory innovation development and extension. The “Conservation Tillage Project” and the “Food Security Project” developed such an approach and have embarked on institutionalisation of this approach into the agricultural extension service in Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe. Dialogue with farmers, farmer experimentation and the strengthening of self-organisational capacities of rural communities are the major elements to improve development and spreading of innovations, thus the efficiency of extension. The new approach requires a role change of agricultural extension workers from teacher to facilitator as well as appropriate methods and tools. Elements of “Training for Transformation” and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were tested and developed and were found to be effective tools. The strategy to institutionalise participatory extension is based on joining efforts and networking with other organisations, a campaign to familiarise institutional staff and a training and follow-up programme for staff in the framework of organisational development.

The experiences show that the attitudinal change required to implement participatory approaches is highly depended on personalities. To have an impact on the change of attitudes a continuous mediumterm training process with a close follow-up is required. The paper concludes that institutionalisation of participatory approaches into hierarchically structured organisations is a highly complex intervention. In order to be successful, major changes in planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation procedures are required. Changes of that nature require a process of at least 5 to 10 years and high commitment on the side of institutional staff on all levels and donors as well.     

蓬勃发展的农业广播电视教育

本文介绍了农业广播电视学校的办学特色、优势和作用,较为全面地总结了农广校的办学经验:政府重视和主管部门支持是保证;充分发挥多部门联合办学的优势是关键;明确的定位和清晰的工作思路是前提;加强和完善农广校体系建设是基础;提高办学队伍素质,保证教学质量是生命线。     

Extension education and the role of university extension departments

Conclusion The categorisation by Yesufu is important in delineating the several functions and orientations through which extension education can be effected. Extension education as a catalyst in the field of development education is an imperative for all universities and other allied institutions, whether technological, agricultural, liberal or conventionally oriented. Towards this end, appropriately trained extension education personnel are a necessity. Extension departments have peculiar and unique problems due to their dual orientation. The need, therefore, arises for special attention and consideration in the areas of funding, organisational scheduling, and human and infrastructural resources.     

近代中国基督教大学的农业推广服务

农业推广服务是近代中国基督教大学开展社会服务的一项重要内容,主要采用演讲与展览、实地试验、与农家合作、印发普及读物等形式。这些活动改善了农民的生活,提高了农民的素质,也促进了基督教大学教学科研的发展。当然,受经费等条件所限,其成效亦有限。但探讨其开展农业推广的原因、形式与内容、保障、成效及其制约因素,将有助于为当今高校的农业推广服务提供可资借鉴的经验和启示。     

Becoming an agricultural advisor – the rationale,the plan and the implementation of a model of reflective practice in extension higher education

Purpose: This paper argues the rationale for a model of reflective practice in the formation of young agricultural advisors and to use this model to inform a wider discussion on the importance of the different levels of reflection in agricultural extension higher education.

Design/methodology/approach: The paper presents a model of four reflective practice modules conceived as successive building blocks in the professional development of a reflective agricultural advisor and examines the model through the lens of theory and the lens of experience of the first cohort of students to complete the programme.

Findings: Experiential learning with structured critical reflection is shown to support the integration of knowledge gained into new professional identities as agricultural advisors.

Practical Implications: Curricula for higher education in agricultural extension need to be revitalised and refreshed to address the mismatch between the emphasis on the social dimensions of extension in the literature and the general lack of attention to this in the education and formation of agricultural advisors.

Theoretical Implications: The paper presents a model of reflective practice that draws on experiences in other professions that could be applied to early career and continuing professional development for agricultural advisors.

Originality/Value: By presenting a model for reflective practice, the author intends to stimulate a wider discussion on the importance of the different levels of reflection in agricultural extension higher education.     

清末直隶的农业教育

直隶是刨办农学堂，发展近代农业教育最早的省份之一。其中，遵化“农算学堂”是全国诞生最早的农学堂；直隶农务学堂则是全国成立最早的高等农业学堂。直隶各类农业教育机构的兴办，不仅为各地培养了许多懂得农业科技知识的人才，而且推动了直隶近代先进农业技术知识的推广和传播，但其局限性也显而易见。     

清末直隶的农业教育

直隶是创办农学堂,发展近代农业教育最早的省份之一.其中,遵化"农算学堂"是全国诞生最早的农学堂;直隶农务学堂则是全国成立最早的高等农业学堂.直隶各类农业教育机构的兴办,不仅为各地培养了许多懂得农业科技知识的人才,而且推动了直隶近代先进农业技术知识的推广和传播,但其局限性也显而易见.