Glory Out of Reflected Failure: The examination of how rivalry affects sport fans

Most studies on participant or fan rivalry have employed quantitative methods to investigate the phenomenon (Kilduff et al., 2010, Kimble and Cooper, 1992, Smith and Schwartz, 2003). The current study adds to the existing literature by using qualitative analysis to investigate the way fans make meaning of the rivalry. Intercollegiate football and men's basketball fans in the United States were interviewed about their perceptions of their favourite and rival teams, and the enjoyment they experienced when someone other than their favourite team defeated the identified rival. Social identity theory guided the investigation (Tajfel, 1974), and four themes were identified regarding fan reactions to rivalry: (1) socialisation, (2) in-group bias, (3) sense of satisfaction and (4) out-group indirect competition. Further, Glory Out of Reflected Failure (GORFing) extends research on disidentification (Elsbach & Bhattacharya, 2001), in-group bias (Tajfel, 1969, Turner, 1982), and schadenfreude (Heider, 1958) and asserts that fans will rejoice when their rival team has been defeated in indirect competition. Findings from the current study provide academics and administrators many avenues to further the understanding of fan social psychology and sport rivalry. Theoretical and practical implications of the current study along with areas for future research are presented.     

Understanding fan motivation for interacting on social media

Social media provide fans with an additional means to engage with their team and are a valuable forum for sport organizations to better understand fan motivations and strengthen fan relationships. This study contributes to emerging research on the nature of social media use by revealing the motivations underpinning the desire of fans to communicate on the Facebook sites of several National Basketball Association (NBA) teams. Our findings indicate that fans exercise four key motives as they draw value from the social media enabled connection to the team: passion, hope, esteem and camaraderie. Further, and in light of our understanding of these motives, we identify how this platform can be used to facilitate interaction, a key construct in relationship marketing. A content analysis, using a netnographic methodology, was undertaken to explore online comments by fans of eight purposefully selected NBA teams over a two-week period during the off-season. This period represents strong potential for isolating highly identified fans who are motivated to seek engagement and interaction. Implications for sport managers to further relational goals are identified.     

Bracketed morality and ethical ideologies of sport fans

Historically, scholarship on ethics in sport has focused almost exclusively on practices of athletes, coaches and leagues. In this study, we highlight a serious void in the existing empirical literature on morality – ethical ideology and intention – of sport fans. Applying ‘bracketed morality,’ sport fans sometimes enact or accept behaviours otherwise regarded as problematic in everyday situations – insulting athletes, cursing at officials, celebrating riotously and/or intimidating fans of rival teams. Only some fans actually sanction (oppose) these kinds of behaviours, suggesting that they are questionable but not necessarily problematic, and, thus, worthy of closer investigation. Here, with the aid of four scenarios, we find that sport fans’ ethical ideology influences ethical intention. We also find that this influence is mediated twofold by ethical perception of moral problems and trivialization of observed situations, with trivialization exhibiting greater influence. Hence, while ethical ideologies and perceptions are important, they may be bracketed in evaluations of sport-fan behaviours.     

An empirical analysis of European football rivalries based on on-field performances

Unlike previous research on the concept of rivalry, the specific focus of this study is on the dynamic relationships between on-field performances of rival clubs. The author analyzes causality structures between league performances of major rival clubs in Europe’s leading divisions in order to assess whether the rivalry between two clubs establishes causality between their performances. The results show that causal relationships hold for less than half of the rivalries, and most of these rivalries involve a success brings success type of dynamic relationship. These findings imply some of the football rivalries in Europe had their roots in other sources than performance, and when devising their strategies, sport managers should take measures to avoid substantial decoupling of team performances from fans’ perceptions.     

我国足球迷队伍的成因及其发展分析

球迷现象作为一种社会文化现象已经逐渐被人们所认识,足球迷队伍的兴衰将直接影响足球运动的发展。运用文献资料法对我国足球迷队伍的形成和发展过程进行了分析。我国足球迷队伍经历了一个由个体逐步发展至群体,从自在走向自为的演化过程。经济问题是其发展的主要因素。体育法制化和球迷队伍组织化、俱乐部化、科学化促进其健康发展,球迷的兴旺将推动我国足球事业的发展。     

从职业足球赛事女性球迷的视角探索品牌关系与行为意向

研究以品牌关系质量理论和消费行为理论作为逻辑起点,通过社会网络分析法(SNA)发现男性球迷和女性球迷在参与职业足球赛事品牌消费时的消费行为存在意向差异,在沿着女性球迷社会角色和文化特征为主线的情况下,整理女性球迷参与下的品牌关系质量特征,将职业足球赛事品牌关系质量划分为满意、信任、承诺3个方面,并运用路径分析构建并验证女性球迷参与下的职业足球赛事品牌关系质量与口碑传播意向间的路径关系,以探究女性球迷参与职业足球赛事品牌消费的行为意向特点。结果表明,女性球迷更倾向于通过口碑接收和传播来表达她们对赛事品牌的参与意向,并且女性球迷在职业足球赛事品牌关系中的品牌满意是影响女性球迷口碑传播意愿的关键因素。     

United in Protest: From ‘Living and Dying with Our Colours’ to ‘Let All the Colours of the World Unite’

Istanbul's ‘Big Three’ football clubs, Be?ikta?, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray, dominate the Turkish Super League. The matches between these fiercely rival teams, also known as ‘derbies’, are often intense and culminate in the eruption of violence, which has even been fatal on occasion. To many people's surprise, the anti-government protests which were sparked by outrage over police action against environmental protestors in May 2013 brought these eternal rivals together. Thousands of Be?ikta?, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray supporters marched arm-in-arm to Taksim Square and demanded justice and freedom. Out of this solidarity is born Istanbul United, a seemingly new fan group with a new logo that combines the three rival logos. Çar??, the legendary fan group of Be?ikta?, also played an important role in the protests and received the support of all football fans as well. This paper will focus on the politicisation of football in Turkey during the second half of 2013. By looking at both the political role of football fans of the ‘Big Three’ during and after the Gezi protests, and the ways in which mutual respect and solidarity is born among diverse protesters, this paper discusses the possibilities of translating this positive genre to a peaceful spectatorship in Turkish football.     

Sport activism and political praxis within the FC Sankt Pauli fan subculture

FC Sankt Pauli is often portrayed as a rebel football club that represents an ideal manifestation of fan centredness. But whilst the club’s reputation is mostly well earned, there is much to distinguish the fans from the club and conflict between the two is prominent and ongoing. This research, based on more than 10 years of ethnography amongst the fans and questionnaires and interviews with key individuals, looks behind the scenes to reveal how fans challenge their club, the authorities and much more beyond. Authentic voices of fan activists tell a story of fervent sport activism, fan power and resistance, alive and well inhabiting a vibrant subculture. Political praxis and protest are prolific amongst Sankt Pauli fans. By illuminating the radical sport activism of Sankt Pauli fans, this paper offers a vision for other football fans to emulate and for sport more generally to realize a more transformative potential.     

‘He is Father Christmas when Man-U wins’: EUFA league and the dynamics of spousal relations in Nigeria

The European Champions League and Premiership have become infectious to Nigerian families. As a patriarchal society, husband fanship influences and alters social interactions before, during and after UEFA matches. Against this background, this paper examines the influence of husbands’ sports fandom on social relations in families and opportunity for deviant behaviour. Findings show that husbands’ identification with European clubs is redefining social relationships at the family level. Families were labelled as: couple as fans of same club, couple as fans of rival clubs and families with one soccer-loving partner. Loss of matches may lead to refusal to eat food, aggressive behaviour, conflict, lack of communication, while victory brings joy, gifts and better bonding and communication. Watching matches outside the home increases the opportunity of husbands to associate with deviant peers and, consequently, deviant behaviour. To keep their marriages, women have converted to soccer lovers to enhance communication and check their husbands’ association with deviant peers.     

我国篮球竞赛暴力事件中球员暴力成因与对策研究

对国内外篮球重大赛事的24场典型暴力事件进行统计分析,总结归纳了3大类26项暴力成因,并对成因进行2轮专家调查和分成不同模块进行R型因子分析,确定了关键因素,揭示了心理基础;进而从管理机构、裁判员队伍、教练员队伍、运动员队伍、现场球迷、新闻媒介等方面探讨篮球竞赛暴力事件的规避策略。     

An investigation of highly identified fans who bet against their favorite teams

Using a mixed-method exploratory approach we describe and explain the seemingly non-normative behaviors of highly identified fans who Bet Against their Favorite Teams (BAFT). Axial coding of qualitative data from 190 survey respondents and two focus groups indicates the emergence of common themes allowing a typology to unfold that explains the motives for and against BAFTing. Results reveal that Gamblers BAFT for reasons un-related to fandom. Hedgers, on the other hand, BAFT precisely because they are fans; they offset a perceived impending emotional loss with a financial gain, a behavior we identify as Hedging Against Future Failure (HAFFing). This research expands the theoretical knowledge of indirect tactics of image management and introduces HAFFing as a transactional, proactive, and private coping mechanism utilized by highly identified fans to regulate their psychological health. Beyond the implications for researchers of self-image management, these results are applicable to global sport managers adapting to the rising prominence and societal acceptance of sport gambling.     

Team identification and sports fandom as predictors of fan aggression: The moderating role of ageing

In the current study, the explored the moderating role of ageing in the relationship between team identification/fandom and fan aggression. The authors used an online panel-based survey that offered access to a realworld population of sports fans. Participants were 740 fans of Israeli professional basketball. Results from structural equation modelling demonstrated that older fans reported higher levels of mere sports fandom and lower levels of self-reported aggression and acceptance of aggression. Moreover, age moderated the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and self-reported aggression, such that team identification (or fandom) was more strongly associated with selfreported fan aggression among younger fans than among older fans. The moderating role of age in the relationships between team identification (or fandom) and perceptions of appropriateness of aggression was not supported. The findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of the role of ageing in the relationship between fan identification and fan aggression. Based on these findings, the authors assert that managers might particularly benefit from leveraging the potential, but often neglected, segment of senior fans, since older fans can play a key role in reducing the level of aggression during competitive sports events. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

Does it really matter? A study on soccer fans’ perceptions of ethical leadership and their role as “stakeowners”

Ethical leadership is increasingly studied in the context of soccer clubs, as it is believed to represent an effective answer to soccer’s “dark side.” However, current academic understanding is limited to key internal stakeholders’ perspectives, such as coaches and players. A highly relevant stakeholder group that is still largely neglected is fans, as they are believed to be uniquely able to influence leadership in sport clubs, while some of soccer’s ethical issues, such as violence and discrimination are strongly associated with fans. This study highlights this duality by referring to fans as “stakeowners,” namely legitimate stakeholders with certain rights as well as responsibilities. Moreover, the authors examine whether ethical leadership by soccer club leaders really matters to fans. Drawing on a qualitative case study in a Belgian professional soccer club, findings indicate fans care mainly about those aspects of ethical leadership that impact their own position, such as clear communication and fan empowerment. On the other hand, findings suggest fan influence on the leadership of their club should not be exaggerated. After all, the club’s leadership questions the critical importance of fans as being core to (soccer) management’s activities and leadership.     

Exploring the experiences of female sport fans: A collaborative self-ethnography

Hegemonic masculinity would suggest that sport fandom is the exclusive domain of men and women are subordinate. Yet, it is apparent that women make up a significant portion of the professional sport spectator market. As such, it is important to systematically examine the role of hegemonic masculinity in the female sport fan experience. The purpose of this paper was to document, explore, and reflect upon personal experiences of female sport fans using a collaborative self-ethnography approach. Over a period of 3 months, we documented our experiences attending professional sport events (e.g., Major League Baseball, Canadian Football League) in the United States and Canada. Analysis of the data occurred through a process of sharing and critical reflection of our narratives. We identified three common themes that defined our experiences as female sport fans: (a) negotiating our definition of being a sport fan, (b) female sport fan as “the outsider”, and (c) marginalisation of other women. Our work provides some insight into the lived experiences of female sport fans. Discussion of the findings is intended to shed light on the conversation regarding hegemonic masculinity within the sport fan literature.     

Football fandom,ethno-regionalism and rivalry in post-colonial Zimbabwe: case study of Highlanders and Dynamos

This paper focuses on football fan rivalry in an African context using the case of Highlanders and Dynamos Football Clubs in Zimbabwe. It explores the intertwined historical, political and ethno-regional causes of this rivalry reflecting on how football reproduces underlying fractures that exist in society. Fan rivalries are an integral part of football across the world. Clashes between rival football teams are often highly charged encounters, resulting in cases of violence. As such the worst instances of football hooliganism are usually experienced during matches between rival football teams. Through the use of indepth interviews, internet research, key informant interviews and observation, we highlight the various dimensions and explanations of this rivalry. Often football becomes an outlay of wider societal conflicts. The stadium offers space for the playing out of these rivalries. Football rivalries thus offer a mirror into the socio-political tensions in society. Football in Africa is fraught with ethnic, racial, class and gender identities which often form the basis of rivalries.     

Measurement and segmentation of sport fans using brand association networks: Application to Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League (UCL)

This article presents a new research methodology for cognitive segmentation based on brand association networks. This application illustrates how brand association networks and cognitive segmentation can identify and describe the UEFA Champions League fans’ segments as a function of their cognitive content and structure. Four segments were identified (show-business lovers, passionate fans, admirers of celebrities and fair play, and event followers). A discussion of the results, directions for future research and managerial contributions are provided.     

‘It was precious to me from the beginning’: material objects,long-distance fandom and home

Material objects and football fandom are intimately linked. As a repository of emotion, memorabilia holds value as a marker of identity. For many football fans, the conception of ‘home’ is integral to their identity. Despite its centrality to football fans’ construction of identity, the notion of ‘home’ has received little attention from sports scholars. Drawing on recent work in cultural geography, this paper employs concepts of home to explore the ways in which materiality holds identity for football fans. Evidence from New Zealand-based fans of European teams displays how material objects are able to collapse distance between fans and their club, acting as palimpsests for memory and narratives for significant emotional experiences. Embedded in the New Zealand home of the fan, memorabilia resides as an emotional bridge to their football home locality, stadia and supporters.     

March sadness: Coping with fan identity threat

While a majority of team identification studies have focused on the influence of psychological connection on organizational objectives, it is important to also examine the influence of team identification on fans in terms of their well-being. Considering the latter, there has been a relative lack of inquiry into how identified fans cope with identity threat, such as program scandal. In the current study, the author uses autoethnography, an interpretive ethnographic mode of inquiry, to examine her Syracuse University Men’s Basketball fandom and her reaction to sanctions imposed on the program in 2015. In doing so, the author finds that she relied on multiple emotion-focused coping strategies over a one-year period to deal with identity threat until a series of positive team-related events restored her identity. The author also finds that her role identities as fan and scholar frequently conflicted one another. Theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications of the current study are discussed.     

‘I was there from the start’: The identity-maintenance strategies used by fans to combat the threat of losing

On-field performances are a key, yet uncontrollable, determinant of team identification. In this research, we explore how fans of a new team, with an overwhelming loss to win ratio, maintain a positive social identity. Qualitative data gathered from 20 semi-structured interviews were used to address this research objective. Our findings indicated fans use social creativity and social mobility strategies to help preserve a positive and distinctive group identity. In the absence of success, fans evaluated the group on dimensions that reflected positively on, and emphasised the distinctiveness of, group membership. Fans also sought to increase their status in the group to increase the positivity of this association. We use these findings to extend understanding of social identity theory and provide recommendations for sport organisations with unfavourable performance records. Recommendations are themed around highlighting the unique nature of the group and favourable status comparisons between members of the in-group.     

Broadcast media: live and in-person

Radio broadcasts brought fans into the drama of the football match in real time for the first time. The indelible impact of radio shaped the development of football fandom in the early to middle 20th century. While television is now the biggest financial supporter of top-level football, owners used to worry that TV would diminish gate receipts. Mass media are often suspected of contributing to social alienation, this chapter shows how fans use television broadcasts to create social events. This essay discusses various viewing contexts such as pubs and fan clubhouses in order to illustrate how media is used by fans to create social bonds.