Method of Measurement and Gender Differences in Scholastic Achievement

Gender differences in scholastic achievement as a function of method of measurement were examined by comparing the performance of 15-year-old boys (N = 739) and girls (N = 758) in Irish schools on multiple-choice tests and free-response tests (requiring short written answers) of mathematics, Irish, and English achievement. Males performed significantly better than females on multiple-choice tests compared to their performance on free-response examinations. An expectation that the gender difference would be larger for the languages and smaller for mathematics because of the superior verbal skills attributed to females was not fulfilled.     

Gender Bias Among Counseling Trainees: A Study of Case Conceptualization

Counseling trainees' responses on free-response dependent measures to 2 client case vignettes were examined for possible gender bias. Gender bias was found for clients, both women and men, who displayed nontraditional gender role behavior.     

课堂表现的性别差异与英语四级成绩关系研究

本研究以317名英语专业学生为被试，运用定量研究的方法，调查了英语课堂表现的性别差异及其与四级成绩之间的关系，并用SPSS(社会科学统计软件包)对统计数据进行了分析。独立样本T检验结果表明，男女受试在“自信”方面有统计学显性差异；相关和回归分析结果表明，受试在课堂表现与四级成绩关系方面有一定的性别差异。     

Comparison of six examinations given in Rhetoric 101, at the University of Illinois,fall 1965

Two forms of the College Entrance Examination Board's (CEEB) English Composition Test were compared with four rhetoric final examinations in the basic English composition course at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign during fall semester 1965. This comparison was made to determine if the CEEB test could be used to predict course grade as well as the departmental final examination. In addition, an analysis of the examinations was conducted to determine the stability of the tests. The results indicated that the CEEB test was much more stable and yielded better item statistics, which seemed to characterize a norm-referenced measuring instrument. The departmental examinations, on the other hand, were more highly related to course grade and seemed to more nearly characterize a criterion-referenced measuring instrument.     

How accurate are ESL students’ holistic writing scores on large-scale assessments?—A generalizability theory approach

Using generalizability theory, this study examined both the rating variability and reliability of ESL students’ writing in the provincial English examinations in Canada. Three years’ data were used in order to complete the analyses and examine the stability of the results. The major research question that guided this study was: Are there any differences between the rating variability and reliability of the writing scores assigned to ESL students and to Native English (NE) students in the writing components of the provincial examinations across three years? A series of generalizability studies and decision studies was conducted. Results showed that differences in score variation did exist between ESL and NE students when adjudicated scores were used. First, there was a large effect for both language group and person within language-by-task interaction. Second, the unwanted residual variance component was significantly larger for ESL students than for NE students in all three years. Finally, the desired variance associated with the object of measurement was significantly smaller for ESL students than for NE students in one year. Consequently, the observed generalizability coefficient for ESL students was significantly lower than that for NE students in that year. These findings raise a potential question about the fairness of the writing scores assigned to ESL students.     

英汉习语对比

章通过对英汉习语在语音、语义、结构等方面的特点进行分析，揭示了英汉习语的共性，但由于英汉语言深受各自化的影响，他们之间又有着较大的差异。章又从地理环境、神话传说、语言故事、历史事件、学典故、宗教信仰、民族思维、价值观等方面的差异分析了两的个性特点，以使学习弄清英汉习语的化内涵．在使用习语时表达得体，从而提高英语交际能力。     

Academic self‐concept,gender and single‐sex schooling

This article assesses gender differences in academic self‐concept for a cohort of children born in 1958 (the National Child Development Study). It addresses the question of whether attending single‐sex or co‐educational schools affected students' perceptions of their own academic abilities (academic self‐concept). Academic self‐concept was found to be highly gendered, even controlling for prior test scores. Boys had higher self‐concepts in mathematics and science, and girls in English. Single‐sex schooling reduced the gender gap in self‐concept, while selective schooling was linked to lower academic self‐concept overall.     

The Contribution of a Response-Production Component to a Free-Response Synonym Task

A cognitive approach to the study of format differences is illustrated using synonym tasks. By means of a multiple regression analysis with latent variables, it is shown that both a response-production component and an evaluation component are involved in answering a free-response synonym task. Given the results of Janssen, De Boeck, and Vander Steene (1996), the format differences between the multiple-choice evaluation task and the free-response synonym task can be explained in terms of the kinds of verbal abilities measured. The evaluation task is a pure measure of verbal comprehension, while the free-response synonym task is affected by verbal comprehension and verbal fluency, as well. The design used to study format differences controls both for content effects and for the effects of repeating item stems across formats.     

Parent involvement in early childhood: a comparison of English language learners and English first language families

This study evaluated parents’ communication, involvement and knowledge of their children’s abilities in reading and mathematics among parents who spoke English as a first language (EL1) and those who were English language learners (ELL). Forty‐two kindergarten‐aged children, their parents and their teachers participated in the study. Results indicated that EL1 parents communicated more frequently with the teacher than ELL parents. However, there were no language group differences in parents’ involvement in their children’s education (as rated by the teacher). For both groups of parents (EL1 and ELL), parents’ ratings of their children’s abilities in reading did not predict children’s reading scores. However, parents’ ratings of their children’s abilities in mathematics did predict their children’s mathematics scores. Further analyses indicated that this relationship was not mediated by parents’ communication or involvement. It is concluded that parents’ accurate knowledge of their children’s abilities in mathematics may be the result of their involvement at home and particularly for ELL parents, their greater understanding of and emphasis on mathematics learning.     

Correlations Among Five Demographic Variables and the Performance of Selected Jamaican 11th-graders on Some Numerical Problems on Energy

This study was designed to assess whether the level of performance of selected Jamaican 11th-grade physics students on some numerical problems on the energy concept was satisfactory and if there were significant differences in their performance linked to their gender, socioeconomic background (SEB), school location, English language and mathematical abilities. The 331 sampled students consisted of 213 boys and 118 girls; 197 students were from a high SEB and 134 students from a low SEB; 296 students were from seven urban schools and 35 students from three rural schools; 112, 153 and 66 of the students had high, average and low English language abilities, respectively, while 144, 81 and 106 of the students had high, average and low mathematical abilities, respectively. An Energy Concept Test (ECT) consisting of six structured numerical questions was employed for data collection. The results indicated that although the students’ level of performance was regarded as fairly satisfactory, there was a lot of room for improvement. There were statistically significant differences in the students’ performance on the ECT linked to SEB, and mathematical abilities in favour of students from a high SEB, and high mathematical abilities, respectively. There was a positive, statistically significant but weak correlation between the students’ (a) mathematical abilities, and (b) English language abilities and their performance on the ECT, while there were no correlations among their gender, school location, and SEB and their performance on the ECT.     

“‘Sink or swim’: buoyancy and coping in the cognitive test anxiety – academic performance relationship”

This study explores the relationship between students’ self-report levels of cognitive test anxiety (worry), academic buoyancy (withstanding and successfully responding to routine school challenges and setbacks), coping processes and their achieved grades in high-stakes national examinations at the end of compulsory schooling. The sample comprised 325 English students in their final year of secondary school preparing for high-stakes examinations. While controlling for prior attainment and gender, higher worry predicted lower examinations scores. This was partially mediated by less use of effective pre-exam coping strategies. Academic buoyancy moderated the indirect relationship such that the indirect negative relationship from worry to examination performance was stronger when academic buoyancy was lower. The paper concludes that providing in-school training in task-focus and orientation and how to withstand academic pressures may help to ameliorate the influence of performance-interfering worries, and potentially enhance performance among students inclined to worry about examinations.     

Using generalizability theory to examine the accuracy and validity of large-scale ESL writing assessment

Using generalizability (G-) theory, this study examined the accuracy and validity of the writing scores assigned to secondary school ESL students in the provincial English examinations in Canada. The major research question that guided this study was: Are there any differences between the accuracy and construct validity of the analytic scores assigned to ESL students and to NE students for the provincial English writing examination across three years? A series of G-studies and decision (D-) studies for three years were conducted to examine accuracy and validity issues. Results showed that differences in score accuracy did exist between ESL and NE students when initial (pre-adjudication) scores were used. The observed G-coefficients for ESL students were significantly lower than those for NE students in all three years, indicating that there were less accuracy and increased errors associated with the writing scores assigned to ESL students. Further, there were significantly less convergent validity in one year and less discriminant validity in all three years of the writing scores assigned to ESL students than to NE students. These findings raise a potential question about the presence of bias in the assessment of ESL students’ writing if initial scores were used.     

Rater Comparability Scoring and Equating: Does Choice of Target Population Weights Matter in This Context?

When a constructed‐response test form is reused, raw scores from the two administrations of the form may not be comparable. The solution to this problem requires a rescoring, at the current administration, of examinee responses from the previous administration. The scores from this “rescoring” can be used as an anchor for equating. In this equating, the choice of weights for combining the samples to define the target population can be critical. In rescored data, the anchor usually correlates very strongly with the new form but only moderately with the reference form. This difference has a predictable impact: the equating results are most accurate when the target population is the reference form sample, least accurate when the target population is the new form sample, and somewhere in the middle when the new form and reference form samples are equally weighted in forming the target population.     

语篇回指中人称代词的性别照应——英汉对比及其在翻译中的运用

在篇章回指中,英汉语篇在第三人称照应时有性别指称方面的差异。这些差异对翻译有一定的影响,主要表现在：其一,英语第三人称代词的单数形式在口头上和书面上都有性的区别,而汉语在口头上甚至有时在书面上都没有性的差别,而且汉语第三人称代词的复数形式也有性的区别;其二,英语语篇中人称照应的使用频率要高于汉语,后者主要使用零照应和名词照应的手段,这可能是与英语重意合,而汉语重形合的特点有关。     

汉英民族思维方式差异及其对语言的影响

汉英民族由于文化、历史背景不同,形成了不同的思维方式。思维方式差异是造成语言差异的一个重要原因。本文通过对比英汉民族思维方式的差异,并用具体实例分析这些差异对语言表达上的影响。     

Vergleichbarkeit von Abiturleistungen

This article examines differences in the mathematics and English proficiency of academic-track students in Baden-Württemberg (N?=?3526) and Hamburg (N?=?3734), investigating whether and to what extent these differences are reflected in the Abitur grades the students are awarded. The article also examines the extent to which scores in centrally conducted examinations provide better comparability than do coursework grades. Multilevel analyses predicting coursework grades in mathematics revealed clear between-state differences, with students in Hamburg being awarded higher mathematics grades than comparably able students in Baden-Württemberg. These differences are partly attributable to frame of reference effects and their impact on teachers’ grading practices. No corresponding between-state differences were found for English. Mathematics examination scores provided a much better measure of student achievement than mathematics coursework grades. The findings are discussed in terms of meritocratic access to sought-after university and training places.     

On the Cultural Comparison between Chinese and English——The Analogy of Animal Words

Languages convey cultural information while they are used as tools to communicate.With the development of human society and the frequencies of intercultural communication,cultural differences may impact on people’s normal communications.Cultural differences between English and Chinese appear in many aspects of languages.Animal words are influenced by such cultural factors as geographical conditions,historical developments,traditional customs,mythology and fables,etc.So they are endowed with abundant cultural connotations.A similar animal word may have different connotative meanings in English and Chinese respectively,but sometimes different animal words have the same connotations.Whether they are different or not will reflect cultural differences between Chinese and English.Thus,through illustration,classification and comparison of English and Chinese animal words,the thesis aims to explore the cultural differences between English and Chinese.What’s more,the thesis aims to help English learns have a better understanding of English culture and develop the abilities of English language study.     

Between Routines and Anarchy: preparing teachers for uncertainty

This paper argues that examinations have a complex role in creating and defining gender differences in performance in public examinations. To illustrate this argument three aspects of examining are reviewed: styles of examinations and how they define achievement; coursework and the role it plays in contributing to gender differences in performance; and tiered entry systems in examinations and how they provide unequal opportunities for boys and girls to be successful. It presents the context in which research into gender, achievement and examining is now located by initially reviewing the recent media hype around gender and achievement. It then takes an historical look at gender and achievement and goes on to describe new gender stereotypes that influence current understandings of boys' and girls' achievement. There is much information that is ‘hidden’ behind examination results as they are commonly reported. This hidden information has more to do with how differences in performance are obtained, how subjects are assessed and how we choose to assess students. How all this interacts with students' perceptions and expectations alongside those of their teachers must impact on how boys and girls perform in examinations. This ‘hidden’ information has vital implications for whom we perceive to be under or overachieving.     

The interactive effect of language and question format on accounting students' performance

This article reports the results of research to determine if a significant interactive effect exists between students' lingual background (English as a primary language [EPL] versus English as a secondary language [ESL]) and question format on students' examination scores. Students were administered examinations made up of four subtests covering the same subject matter. The subtests were composed of four question formats: multiple choice quantitative, multiple choice theoretical, open-ended quantitative, and open-ended essay questions. Based on analysis of variance and analysis of covariance, significant differences were observed between EPL and ESL students depending on the type of question on the examination.     

Alignment as a Teacher Variable

Essay scores generated by machine and by human raters are generally comparable; that is, they can produce scores with similar means and standard deviations, and machine scores generally correlate as highly with human scores as scores from one human correlate with scores from another human. Although human and machine essay scores are highly related on average, this does not eliminate the possibility that machine and human scores may differ significantly for certain gender, ethnic, or country groups. Such differences were explored with essay data from two large-scale high-stakes testing programs: the Test of English as a Foreign Language and the Graduate Record Examination. Human and machine scores were very similar across most subgroups, but there were some notable exceptions. Policies were developed so that any differences between humans and machines would have a minimal impact on final reported scores.