Current Developments in Community College Performance Funding

Since the initiation of performance funding in Tennessee in the late 1970s, approximately 30 states have, at some point, attempted a funding model that includes performance on a set of indicators. The purpose of the present study was to capture the current status of performance funding in public statewide community college systems and to assess which performance indicators were collected at the state level. Data were obtained through the 2012 Survey of Finance and Access Issues conducted by the Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama. The survey was administered to the National Council of State Directors of Community Colleges, and 50 responses were obtained from 49 states. Not every survey respondent answered each survey item. Findings showed that 19 states used performance funding for community colleges, with six of those states allocating at least 10% of state funds based on performance. An analysis of indicators captured at the state level (not exclusively for performance funding) showed a decline of emphasis on process indicators and greater emphasis on outputs. The performance-based distribution of base funding and the inclusion of output measures that capture intermediate indicators of success are consistent with the principles of Performance Funding 2.0, a new form of performance funding recently discussed in the literature. Future research should include tracking the current findings over time and expanding the existing literature on whether performance funding influences outcomes.     

A New Defendant at the Table: An Overview of Missouri School Finance and Recent Litigation

Like many other states, Missouri has gone through several rounds of school finance litigation. However, the trial just concluded was unusual in two respects. First, three taxpayers were allowed to intervene for the defense and, in the process, raise important questions concerning the efficiency of school spending and broader questions of school reform. Second, the outcome at the circuit court level, which focused nearly entirely on points of law, was a complete victory for the defense. This article provides an overview of disputes of Missouri school finance and evidence pertaining to some of the points in dispute at the trial. These lessons generalize to other states facing school finance litigation. The authors conclude that changes in school funding formulas, and the seemingly interminable litigation about those formulas, are not an effective vehicle for addressing achievement gaps or the overall level of school performance.     

Assessing a State-Mandated Institutional Accountability Program: The Perceptions of Selected Community College Leaders

ABSTRACT

In the spring of 2002 we conducted a structure-focused case study at 4 North Carolina community colleges to understand how selected senior campus leaders assessed a new legislatively-mandated institutional-accountability program. Using confidential interviews and document analysis we collected, analyzed, and interpreted data that revealed clear differences in how leaders regarded the accountability program. These distinct, campus-specific perspectives are characterized as “bureaucratic meddling,” “benign intrusion,” “an opportunity to demonstrate accountability,” and “the divided leaders.” Despite these distinct perspectives, however, we also found 2 overarching themes that illuminated common reactions to the accountability program. First, leaders at 3 of the 4 institutions reported that performance ratings under the accountability program were instrumental in prompting changes in instructional programs or staffing. Second, faculty leaders at 3 institutions exhibited an apathy or unawareness of state indicators, even though some state funding was linked to measures regarding student performance.     

State programs for medical diagnosis of child abuse and neglect: case studies of five established or fledgling programs

OBJECTIVE: To describe the programs for medical diagnosis of child abuse and neglect in three states and efforts to establish state-wide programs in two states. To describe common themes and issues that emerged related to the establishment and maintenance of these programs. METHODS: Five states were selected as case studies to represent a range of experience and type of function embodied in programs that address medical diagnosis of child abuse and neglect. Individuals knowledgeable about the programs or efforts to establish state-wide programs in their home states described these in detail. Inductive analysis was used to identify themes and issues that emerged across the states studied. FINDINGS: Themes emerged in three general areas: funding, services, and training. Findings related to funding were: 1) State funding was vital for initiation of statewide programs; 2) Alliances with other groups with parallel interests were successfully used to garner support for child abuse programs; 3) Services needed to be adequately reimbursed to be sustained; 4) Political climate often affected funding. With regard to services we found: 1) There was no optimal way to organize services, but rather many ways that worked well; 2) It was critical to address local service needs; 3) Provision of standardized quality services was essential. With regard to training: 1) Professional training was an integral part of all statewide programs; 2) New technologies, including televideo, have been explored and implemented to assist in training in statewide programs. CONCLUSIONS: Each state has taken a unique approach to programs for the medical diagnosis of child abuse and neglect. However, there are commonalities, particularly among the states that have been successful in establishing and maintaining comprehensive services and/or training.     

A Sustainable Entrepreneurship Training Program

Across the country, educational and policy leaders are challenged to find solutions to the potentially serious shortage of certified public school teachers. Although community colleges enroll almost half of the undergraduate students in American colleges and universities, until very recently, little attention has been focused on their potential role in meeting this critical societal need. In addition to discussing pertinent literature, proposing a basic typology of teacher education delivery models based on those already being utilized by community colleges, and describing relevant issues and challenges, this article reports and analyzes the findings of a 2002 survey of state community college directors. The survey was designed to ascertain perceptions of these state leaders with respect to the current role of community colleges in teacher education and the importance of the issue in their respective states. Questions for further study and policy considerations are offered as an extension of the analysis of these data and issues.     

LINKING PERFORMANCE TO FUNDING OUTCOMES AT THE STATE LEVEL FOR PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION: Past,Present, and Future

This article discusses the use of performanceindicators and performance-based funding by states fortheir systems of higher education drawing on theexisting literature on the topic. The different types of mechanisms currently used by states formeasuring institutional performance are described as arerecent state experiences with performance indicators,including their pitfalls and limitations. Additionally, a summary of the current status ofperformance-based funding applications is discussedincluding some of the reported difficulties inimplementing such funding models. Finally, the authorexplores the future implications of performance indicators andperformance-based funding mechanisms for public highereducation.     

Unequal pay for equal work? Unpacking the gender gap in principal compensation

We investigate the male–female gap in principal compensation in state and national data: detailed longitudinal personnel records from Missouri and repeated cross-sections from the nationally representative Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). In both data sets, we estimate substantively important compensation gaps for school leaders. In Missouri, female principals make approximately $1,450 less annually than their male colleagues with similar characteristics, including experience level and degree attainment, leading the same school in different years. Gaps are present in both base salary and extra duty salary, and are only partially explained by career paths or workplace sorting. SASS analyses show that women make about $1,000 less than men nationally, on average, a gap that even grows larger once accounting for individual and workplace characteristics, teacher-supplied effectiveness ratings, and reported hours worked. The presence of these residual gaps after accounting for many supply-side explanations may signal gender discrimination in school principal compensation.     

Measuring the Quality of Faculty and Administrative Worklife: Implications for College and University Campuses

There seems to be a presumption that the quality of worklife on college and university campuses has declined for faculty and administrative staff. What is not known is how generally true this is perceived to be, to what extent the quality of worklife varies by campus, and for what reasons it varies. Most importantly, it is not clear what impact the quality of worklife of faculty and staff members has on their performance or retention. The following article reviews the recent empirical literature devoted to this topic and offers a framework that conceptualizes these studies in three groups: those that describe and explore differences in the quality of worklife, those that determine the impact of worklife on attitudes, and those that attempt to explain behavioral outcomes. The implications of this work for practice and policy on college and university campuses is discussed. The author argues that campus leaders who want to improve the performance and retention of faculty and administrative staff must identify and address the particular issues that matter to those employed on their campuses.     

Lessons Learned

In the current context of standards-based reform and heightened accountability for school performance, state education agencies (SEAs) have an important, but not yet well-articulated, role to play in local school improvement efforts. This article starts to articulate such a role by examining the variety of approaches and strategies used by 7 SEAs to support schools and districts applying for and ultimately implementing the federal Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) program. Building from the assertion that SEAs can and do make choices about how to best implement federal programs, we explore the choices that the studied SEAs have made around (a) the integration of the CSR program with other state and federal initiatives, (b) the different levels of funding provided to schools, (c) the continuity of SEA leadership around CSR, and (d) the variety of support strategies provided to participating schools. Although these SEAs have supported CSR in different ways, we conclude that the most important state strategy for leveraging systemic advantage from CSR involves the extent to which SEA staff have stayed with the program and thus gained in-depth knowledge of the program necessary to improve CSR in their states.     

From the States: Performance funding in Texas

“From the States” for this issue is written by my friend and guest columnist Jerry Gaither, who provides a good overview of Texas's “near miss” with performance funding. Other states currently examining performance funding options are Missouri, Minnesota, and Colorado. —Peter T. Ewell     

Conversations about sexuality on a public university campus: perspectives from campus ministry students and leaders

Little is known about university campus religious organisations’ influence on students’ sexuality-related attitudes and behaviours. This study sought to better understand sexuality-related communication within the context of campus ministries by exploring students’ and campus ministry leaders’ conversational experiences at a public university in the south-east USA. Data sources included an online survey of undergraduates participating in student religious organisations (n = 57), focus groups with campus ministry students (n = 36), and individual interviews with campus ministry leaders (n = 19). Findings indicated student satisfaction with the focus and frequency of conversations about romantic relationships and sexual health within the context of campus ministries. However, both campus ministry students and leaders indicated discomfort in discussions of sexuality. Leaders acknowledged their need for better strategies to engage students; students focused on how to integrate religious messages about sexuality with messages from other sources. These findings suggest campus ministry leaders may benefit from focused training and support to communicate more effectively with college students about sexuality.     

At-Risk Students Attending Second Chance Programs: Measuring Performance in Desired Outcome Domains

Meeting the educational needs of at-risk secondary students is a challenge for many states. Some states have blended school reform policies, such as school choice, with specific programs for students at risk of school failure. One blended school choice option that has been in operation for nearly a decade is Minnesota's Second Chance Option. This option allows students at risk of school failure the opportunity to choose alternative programs designed to meet their needs; however, little is known about the effectiveness of these programs. In this article, findings from a study examining a broad array of outcomes for students attending Minnesota's second-chance school choice option for at-risk secondary students are presented. Student performance was assessed in 7 outcome areas, using a model developed by the University of Minnesota's National Center on Educational Outcomes. Students at 3 representative alternative school sites were assessed in the fall and spring of an academic year to determine their level of student performance. This article addresses the performance of persisters (those who remained in the programs) and dropouts, the use of the model for accountability, and the effectiveness of second-chance programs.     

APPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES

This article discusses community college involvement in a key welfare-to-work training program, the Jobs Opportunities and Basic Skills Training Program (JOBS), as a mirror to reflect on the larger issue of how federal and state workforce policy impacts publicly-controlled institutions of higher education. A qualitative assessment of JOBS programs at community colleges framed discussion regarding the challenges community colleges face as they attempt to preserve these programs within an era of devolved responsibility for welfare-to-work funding from the federal government to the states.     

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING TECH PREP

The fundamental purpose of the Tech Prep Education Act is to prepare students for rapid technological advances and the America's participation in a global economy. Technical preparation (Tech Prep) addresses this goal through a curriculum comprising mathematics, science, communications, and various related occupational cluster areas to bridge secondary with postsecondary education. Across the nation, approximately 800 local consortia formed during the 1992 fiscal year to receive federal funding to plan and implement these new educational programs. The present study was conducted to document the planning and implementation processes used in 17 Tech Prep consortia in a Midwest state. The three research objectives were to document (a) how planning and implementation processes occurred, (b) the roles of local Tech Prep project leaders who assumed responsibility for guiding these processes, and (c) the leaders’ perceptions of how various planning and implementation processes contributed to the development of effective Tech Prep programs. The findings from this research can assist local consortia in conducting planning and implementation processes for new Tech Prep programs.     

States and Their Struggles With NCLB: Does the Obama Blueprint Get It Right?

This article analyzes challenges states identify in implementing No Child Left Behind (NCLB) with the Obama administration's proposals for Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) reauthorization. Drawing upon information from six states, this study shows that the Obama administration Blueprint for Reauthorization of ESEA responds to a number of state concerns with NCLB but fails to acknowledge the sheer magnitude of the challenges states face. The Blueprint addresses the overall concern for greater flexibility in timing, focus, and remedies that states express. Furthermore, the Blueprint acknowledges but does not fully address the importance of teacher and leader quality and the distributional challenges. The Blueprint falls short, however, in addressing the need for a more robust body of knowledge regarding effective intervention, the pragmatic obstacles to redistribution of high-quality teachers and leaders, and the political and fiscal challenges that states combat in intensifying and funding the level of performance it demands.     

Covet Thy Neighbor or “Reverse Policy Diffusion”? State Adoption of Performance Funding 2.0

Performance funding has become an increasingly prevalent state policy to incentivize student retention and degree completion at public colleges. Using a Cox proportional hazards model on state-level data from years 2000 to 2013, this study analyzes the latest wave of policies that embed base appropriations into the state budget to fund student outcomes. Results indicate that having a greater proportion of bordering performance funding states diminishes the likelihood of policy adoption, capturing a “reverse policy diffusion” effect. States with Republican-controlled legislatures, more professionalized legislatures, and rapid growth in unemployment rates are more likely to adopt the policy, while those with higher educational attainment levels and more bachelor’s degrees awarded per student are less likely. Implications include the surprising finding of reverse policy diffusion, which suggests that states are delaying adoption until after they can observe the political consequences and impacts of the policy in neighboring states. Findings point to a policy learning effect—by observing other state’s experiences, policymakers can make more informed decisions about whether to pursue performance funding as an accountability tool.     

Talk About Field Placement Within Campus Coursework: Connecting Theory and Practice in Teacher Education

Worldwide, scholars and policymakers have called for teacher education to link fieldwork and coursework. This article examines teacher candidates’ opportunities to talk about field placement within their campus coursework as one way of doing so. It reports on survey data (n?=?270) and observation data (n?=?52 hours) from 3 teacher-education programs in Norway, Finland, and California in the USA. Findings suggest that candidates have extensive opportunities to talk about field placement. However, the characteristics of the talk, the degree of specificity and detail provided, and the level of complexity and connectedness to theory vary extensively. The article argues that, to be generative for professional learning, talk about field placement needs to be systematically scaffolded within a pedagogy of teacher education.     

PUBLIC TWO‐YEAR COLLEGE FUNDING AND PROGRAM PATTERNS

Several sets of data were employed in efforts to address the major concerns of this study. The first was a national survey of state directors of two‐year colleges. From them basic data regarding the distribution of funding for public two‐year college institutions on a state‐by‐state basis was obtained. It was found that 57% of funding nationally was derived from state legislatures, 17% from local or regional governments, 14% from tuition, and 10% from other sources. Also computed from the survey data was the distribution of full‐time enrollments by generic program. It was found that about half of the full‐time students were enrolled in occupational programs.

Using selected national data, the cost per credit‐hour for 1979‐1980 full‐time students was computed to be $115 if 24 credit‐hours are considered a full‐time load, and $92 using 30 credit‐hours as a full‐time load.

Also determined were the correlations between selected population data and certain public two‐year college demographics. Strong positive relationships were found between state populations, number of colleges in the state, and the magnitude of the states’ gross weights (fraction of total national full‐time enrollments found in that state).     

Understanding the emergence of females as leaders in academia: The intersections of gender stereotypes,status and emotion

Drawing on the expectation state theory, this paper seeks to analyse the social cognitive process of the impacts of gender stereotypes along with their culturally derived schemas of status belief, status characteristics and emotion at the early stage of women's endeavour to emerge as leaders in academia. Employing a convenience sampling and interviews held with five women academic participants from three public and private universities in the western region of Indonesia, this research reveals that two social cognitive practices affect women's endeavour to emerge as leaders; (1) the incongruities of cultural and cognitive expected status belief and status characteristics about females with the expected performance of leadership. The pervasive effect of these can be mitigated when women adopt a strategy of neglection, coupled with a strategy of networking both via their own networks and their husband's networks; (2) the incongruities of cultural and cognitive expected ways of emotional expression on women with the expected performance of leadership. This impacts the status conferral that shapes the worthiness of females to emerge as leaders, leading female leaders in our study to build a protective shield of emotion display to keep them perceived as worthy individuals for leadership roles.