Proofreading as an index of crystallised intelligence

This paper reports on four studies that were all concerned with cognitive and non‐cognitive correlates of proofreading (PR) ability. A new, five‐minute PR test was devised and piloted. In the first pilot study (N = 191) it was correlated with a verbal reasoning test. In the second study (N = 103) PR scores were regressed onto measures of personality: approach to learning, general and fluid intelligence (verbal reasoning) as well as a test of general knowledge. All three cognitive ability measures were significant predictors of PR but when entered together, general knowledge alone remained significant and accounted for a third of the variance. The third study (N = 95) was similar, except it also included a measure of typical intellectual engagement. Fluid intelligence (verbal reasoning) and openness were the only significant predictors of PR. In the fourth study (N = 249) participants completed four tests: PR, fluid intelligence (verbal reasoning), vocabulary and spelling. PR was consistently correlated with verbal reasoning but more strongly correlated with measures of crystallised intelligence, namely general knowledge and vocabulary. Implications and limitations are considered.     

Typical intellectual engagement as a byproduct of openness,learning approaches,and self‐assessed intelligence

Students (n = 328) from US and UK universities completed four self‐report measures related to intellectual competence: typical intellectual engagement (TIE), openness to experience, self‐assessed intelligence (SAI), and learning approaches. Confirmatory data reduction was used to examine the structure of TIE and supported five major factors: reading and information seeking, intellectual avoidance, directed complex problem solving, abstract thinking, and intellectual pursuits as a primary focus. These factors were significantly and positively associated with deep learning, openness, and SAI, and negatively related to surface learning. Other correlates of TIE were more factor‐dependent. In general, correlations suggested that TIE is related to, but different from, the other intellectual competence constructs examined. Results are discussed in relation to the typical performance approach to intelligence and the importance of TIE with regards to the intrinsic motivation to learn.     

Cognitive Constraints on the Simple View of Reading: A Longitudinal Study in Children With Intellectual Disabilities

The present article aimed to explore how the development of reading comprehension is affected when its cognitive basis is compromised. The simple view of reading was adopted as the theoretical framework. The study followed 76 children with mild intellectual disabilities (average IQ = 60.38, age 121 months) across a period of 3 years. The children were assessed for level of reading comprehension (outcome variable) and its precursors decoding and listening comprehension, in addition to linguistic skills (foundational literacy skills, rapid naming, phonological short-term memory, verbal working memory, vocabulary, and grammar) and non-linguistic skills (nonverbal reasoning and temporal processing). Reading comprehension was predicted by decoding and listening comprehension but also by foundational literacy skills and nonverbal reasoning. It is concluded that intellectual disabilities can affect the development of reading comprehension indirectly via linguistic skills but also directly via nonlinguistic nonverbal reasoning ability.     

Relationships between formal reasoning ability,locus of control,academic engagement and integrated process skill achievement

Twelve pupils from each of thirteen middle school science classes participated in the study. Measures were obtained for each pupil on nine engagement modes. Two engagement measures, attending and generalizing, together with formal reasoning ability, were related to process skill achievement and retention. Formal reasoning ability was the strongest predictor of process skill achievement and retention, accounting for approximately 36% of the variance in each case. Formal reasoning ability and locus of control were each correlated with specific engagement modes. Formal reasoning ability was positively related with rates of generalizing and comprehending. Locus of control was significantly related with rates of attending and total engagement.     

The unique contribution of learning approaches to academic performance,after controlling for IQ and personality: Are there gender differences?

The present study investigated the unique contribution of learning approaches to academic performance, also taking gender differences into account. The participant sample consisted of 476 school pupils (53% girls and 47% boys) from two upper secondary schools in Sweden who completed two self-reported measures related to personality and learning approaches and one cognitive ability test. A series of hierarchical regressions were performed with participants' school subject-specific grades as the criterion variable and learning approaches as the predictor variable, after controlling for all variance related to IQ and personality. The results showed that learning approaches accounted for 6% and 16% of the variance in academic performance for girls and boys, respectively. The results are discussed in terms of possible explanations for and implications of the gender differences found.     

The Contribution of Visual Sensitivity,Phonological Processing,and Nonverbal IQ to Children's Reading

It has been suggested that the differences observed for dyslexic readers compared to normal readers on tasks measuring visual sensitivity may simply be the result of differences between the two groups in general cognitive ability and/or attentional engagement. One common way to accommodate this proposal is to match normal and dyslexic readers on IQ. However, an explicit test of this suggestion is to take normal and dyslexic readers who differ on IQ—where IQ would be expected to explain reading ability—and determine if visual sensitivity can still account for reading skill, even when IQ is taken into account. In this study we explored the relative contributions of nonverbal IQ, visual sensitivity as measured by sensitivity to the frequency doubling illusion, and phonological and irregular word reading to reading ability. Visual sensitivity explained a significant amount of variance in reading ability, over and above nonverbal IQ, accounting for 6% of the unique variance in reading ability. Moreover, visual sensitivity was related primarily to irregular word reading rather than to nonsense word decoding. This study demonstrates that low-level visual sensitivity plays an intrinsic role in reading aptitude, even when IQ differences between normal and dyslexic readers are contrived to maximize the contribution of IQ to reading skill. These results challenge the suggestion that impaired visual sensitivity may be epiphenomenal to poor reading skills.     

A tripartite taxonomy of character: Evidence for intrapersonal,interpersonal, and intellectual competencies in children

Other than cognitive ability, what competencies should schools promote in children? How are they organized, and to what extent do they predict consequential outcomes? Separate theoretical traditions have suggested interpersonal, intrapersonal, and intellectual dimensions, reflecting how children relate to other people, manage their own goals and impulses, and engage with ideas, respectively. However, very little work has examined character empirically. In the current investigation, we partnered with middle schools that had previously identified character strengths relevant in their communities. Across three longitudinal, prospective studies, we examined the factor structure of character, associations with intelligence and Big Five personality traits, and predictive validity for consequential outcomes like peer relations, class participation, and report card grades. In Study 1, teachers rated their students on behaviors exemplifying character strengths as they played out in students’ daily lives. Exploratory factor analyses yielded a three-factor structure consisting of interpersonal (interpersonal self-control, gratitude, social intelligence), intellectual (zest, curiosity), and intrapersonal (academic self-control, grit) factors of character. In Study 2, children rated their own behavior and completed a test of cognitive ability. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the same three-factor structure, and these factors were only weakly associated with cognitive ability. In Study 3, teachers provided character ratings; in parallel, students completed measures of character as well as Big Five personality factors. As expected, intellectual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal character factors related to Big Five openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, respectively. Across studies, positive peer relations were most consistently predicted by interpersonal character, class participation by intellectual character, and report card grades by intrapersonal character. Collectively, our findings support a tripartite taxonomy of character in the school context.     

Cognitive development in undergraduate emerging adults: How course-taking breadth supports skill formation

Theories of cognitive development among emerging adults posit that environmental and age-related influences are responsible for individual differences in complex reasoning abilities. Exposure to and engagement with a diverse set of ideas and perspectives is stipulated to provide a context for which individuals are positioned to coordinate, integrate, and form new abstractions. This notion is implicit in the general education and elective requirements of university programs. In this study, we draw upon the cognitive psychology literature on emerging adult development to examine how intellectual breadth via course-taking patterns relates to gains in cognitive skills. Using recently collected longitudinal data of undergraduates enrolled at a large public university, we leverage a unique set of cognitive measures that tap a string of related constructs. We find moderate associations between intellectual breadth and reasoning skills, with notable differences across cognitive dimensions. Additionally, intellectual curiosity moderates the association between course breadth and cognition. Implications for theories of intellectual development are discussed in relation to undergraduate experiences.     

Multicultural Personality and Multicultural Counseling Competency in Counselor Trainees

The authors hypothesized that multicultural personality and ethnic identity would significantly predict variance in multicultural counseling competencies in counselor trainees, beyond the variance predicted by demographics, multicultural training, openness, and cognitive racial attitudes. Results showed multicultural personality predicted multicultural counseling competency, but ethnic identity did not. Results and implications are discussed.     

Everyday Statistical Reasoning during Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Motivational, General Ability, and Developmental Influences

Research on adolescent problem solving was extended into the domain of statistical reasoning and potential biases in reasoning. In Experiment 1, adolescents solved everyday reasoning problems dealing with the "law of large numbers" and the "intuitive analysis of covariance." In each problem, evidence was presented that portrayed each participant's dominant career goal favorably or unfavorably. In Experiment 2, adolescents and young adults were presented "law of large numbers" evidence that was goal-threatening, goal-enhancing, or goal-neutral. In both experiments, statistical reasoning could be used to discredit the evidence. Results indicated that (1) adolescents and young adults found goal-enhancing evidence more convincing than goal-neutral evidence which, in turn, was perceived more favorably than goal-threatening evidence; (2) statistical reasoning was more frequent on goal-threatening problems than on goal-neutral and goal-enhancing problems; (3) intellectual ability was unrelated to the biases in adolescents' reasoning; (4) verbal ability was linked to "law of large numbers" reasoning, but no cognitive ability was systematically correlated with "analysis of covariance" reasoning; and (5) law of large numbers reasoning of young adults was superior to that of adolescents, but young adults were no less biased in their reasoning than adolescents. The potential functions and consequences of adolescents' biased reasoning, the relation of everyday reasoning to general intellectual abilities, and the influences of motivation and depth of processing are discussed.     

The relative value of reading ability and IQ as predictors of teacher-reported behavior problems

Measures of early family adversity, pre-school-age IQ, school-age IQ, and reading ability were obtained from 779 Dunedin children. The data were used to examine the role of reading ability in the relationship between intellectual performance and teacher-reported behavior problems. Results of regression analyses showed that family adversity and pre-school-age IQ predicted problem behavior during the first year at school. However, reading scores accounted for a larger proportion of the variance in the later behavior problem scores than did school-age IQ scores, and when reading ability was entered in the regression equation before IQ, then reading but not IQ significantly predicted change in problem behavior during the primary school years. The results indicated that the association between IQ scores and problem behavior was mediated by reading ability and that a measure of school-age IQ has limited usefulness for models of primary school-age problem behavior.     

The Relationship Between Children's Drawings of Rectangular Solids from Memory and Performance in Cognitive Tests,Art and Practical Subjects

A total of 127 11 + and 81 12 + subjects drew rectangular solids from memory, after viewing them from different positions. The results were correlated with IQ, vocabulary, verbal judgement and reasoning, and a spatial test with assessment in art and crafts. Unexpectedly high and significant correlations were yielded between drawing solids and cognitive tests involving verbal ability, when compared with correlations between solids, the spatial test and craft subjects, especially for the 12 + group. This appeared contrary to received views on the association of aptitude in drawing with spatial ability. Furthermore, as spatial factors are considered to underpin drawing and craft subjects, a closer association between these, rather than between drawing and verbal ability, was expected. This outcome raised certain theoretical questions concerning drawing and its interaction with perception, language, memory and intellectual development.     

Relationship between single digit addition strategies and working memory reflects general reasoning sophistication

With age, children employ increasingly more sophisticated strategies to solve single-digit addition (SDA) number fact problems. Changes in SDA strategy-use are correlated with age-related changes in cognitive measures (e.g., working-memory capacity, WM); however, this correlation does not explain the basis of SDA strategy-use or change per se. Does strategy-use reflect differences in generally reasoning abilities or are they uniquely tied to SDA abilities? Answers to these questions would help clarify the nature of SDA abilities specifically and early math abilities more generally. To investigate these issues, we assessed 144 5- to 9-year-olds' SDA strategies, visuospatial working memory (VSWM), verbal WM, non-verbal IQ, basic RT, and visuospatial reasoning abilities. We focused on these abilities since recent research shows visuospatial processes support early math development. We used latent profile/class analysis to classify children's SDA strategies and visuospatial reasoning abilities, which yielded four ability subgroups in both cases, only partially related to age. Findings show SDA strategy subgroup and general reasoning subgroup memberships were related. More sophisticated subgroups had better WM, but did not differ in IQ and RT. Findings suggest SDA reasoning reflect general reasoning abilities. Implications for math skills acquisition and intervention are discussed.     

Moral Development Among Mildly Mentally Handicapped School Children

Abstract

According to the cognitive‐developmental theory, intellectual development is best understood in terms of age‐related changes. This has been found to be a valid theory in the case of mentally subnormal subjects as well, although their development proceeds at a speed and up to a level different from their normal age‐mates. The same theory has been applied to moral development and describes it, likewise, as a stage‐like progress of moral reasoning with age. The present study tries to answer the following question: Does the moral reasoning of the subjects classified as subnormal change with age so that it can be said to develop? According to the results obtained (dealing with subjects nine‐, 11‐, 13‐, 15‐ and 17‐years‐old), the cognitive‐developmental hypothesis of moral development is only partially confirmed. Namely, there is a development from the less to the more mature forms of moral reasoning, but the course of that development is not entirely such as the theory assumes. Moreover, moral reasoning of the subjects in this study is more advanced than their intelligence level as expressed by the IQ score.     

Change in Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence and Student Achievement: The Role of Intellectual Engagement

Intellectual engagement (IE) refers to enjoyment of intellectual activities and is proposed as causal for knowledge acquisition. The role of IE for cognitive development was examined utilizing 2‐year longitudinal data from 112 ninth graders (average baseline age: 14.7 years). Higher baseline IE predicted higher baseline crystallized ability but not changes therein, and was not associated with fluid ability. Furthermore, IE predicted change in school grades in language but not in mathematics grades or in standardized tests. These findings suggest that IE is not a major predictor of knowledge acquisition in adolescence, where degree of self‐determination in intellectual behaviors may be relatively limited. Open questions for future research are addressed, including reciprocal longitudinal associations between IE and academic and cognitive development.     

Hierarchial relationships among formal cognitive structures and their relationship to principled moral reasoning

Measurements of formal reasoning and principled moral reasoning ability were obtained from a sample of 99 tenth grade students. Specific modes of formal reasoning (proportional reasoning, controlling variables, probabilistic, correlational, and combinatorial reasoning) were first examined. Findings support the notion of hierarchical relationships which exist among those variables. Further results from factor analysis provide evidence that the variables represent specific cognitive structures that are interdependent with each other and precede operations in development. Finally, significant relationships were found to exist between the different modes of formal reasoning and principled moral reasoning. Combinatorial and correlational reasoning were found to significantly account for 22% of the variance in principled moral reasoning. Theoretical and educational implications are discussed.     

What factors influence students’ real-time motivation and engagement? An experience sampling study of high school students using mobile technology

Abstract

Using mobile technology and experience sampling in junior high school, real-time motivation and engagement were explored at four-levels: between lessons (up to 2 lessons per day; Level 1), between days (5 days per week; L2), between weeks (4 weeks; L3), and between students (113 students; L4). Findings for a ‘random effects’ model revealed substantial variance between students (M?=?67%), followed by variance between lessons (M?=?29%), with little variance between days and between weeks (M?=?2%). In a ‘fixed and random effects’ model, we explored the roles of prior general academic motivation and engagement as well as ability and socio-demographics. Findings revealed that prior general academic motivation and engagement played a significant role in students’ real-time motivation and engagement in mathematics and English and reduced between-student variance by about half. Gender (females), ability (high), and socioeconomic status (high) were also associated with higher real-time motivation and engagement.     

Type of day-care and preschool intellectual development in disadvantaged children

Levels and patterns of intellectual development of 3 groups of socioeconomically disadvantaged children were compared. The groups consisted of (1) children who were randomly assigned to receive extensive university-based intervention group day-care, (2) children whose parents placed them in community day-care centers for varying amounts of time, or (3) children whose parents chose little to no center-based day-care for their children. Two repeated-measures analyses of variance were performed to identify possible day-care effects on IQ level and on patterns of infant and preschool cognitive development. The results suggest that quality community day-care, as well as intervention day-care, may positively change both the level and pattern of preschool intellectual development of socioeconomically disadvantaged children.     

Student engagement and mathematics achievement: Unraveling main and interactive effects

The present study explored the relationships between student engagement and mathematics achievement for 295,416 15‐year‐old students from 11,767 secondary schools in 34 countries who participated in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012. Affective engagement was measured by students’ mathematics interest (InterestMath) and perceived usefulness of schooling (PerceptionSch), behavioral engagement by behaviors facilitating mathematics learning (BehaviorMath) and participation in mathematics learning activities (ActivitiesMath), and cognitive engagement by openness (Openness) and perseverance (Perseverance) in problem‐solving. Results showed that students who were more engaged had higher levels of academic achievement, with cognitive engagement having the strongest association with achievement. Results also showed that students who were highly engaged in two domains had higher achievement levels than peers who were engaged in only one domain in six pairwise comparisons (InterestMath‐BehaviorMath, InterestMath‐Openness, InterestMath‐Perseverance, PerceptionSch‐BehaviorMath, PerceptionSch‐Openness, PerceptionSch‐Perseverance). These results highlighted the importance of a whole‐school based approach in enhancing student achievement.     

ADHD and reading disabilities: a cluster analytic approach for distinguishing subgroups

Data suggest that children with reading disability (RD) and non-RD children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may comprise distinct subgroups. Research has been hampered by variance in definitional criteria, which results in the study of different subgroups of children. Using cluster analysis, this study empirically divided children with ADHD (N = 54), based on their Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and reading ability. Four distinct subgroups emerged in which cognitive, behavioral, and neurochemical function was compared. Cluster 1 was of average FSIQ and reading scores; Cluster 2 was of average FSIQ but showed impairment in reading; Cluster 3 had high FSIQ and reading scores; and Cluster 4 had low scores in both domains. The groups had different patterns of cognitive, behavioral, and neurochemical function, as determined by discrepancies in Verbal-Performance IQ, academic achievement scores, parent aggression ratings, and a measure of noradrenergic function. These distinctions are discussed with regard to etiology, treatment, and long-term outcome.