大众传播“第三者效果”发生的心理机制——从社会心理学角度解释“第三者效果”发生的原因

“第三者效果假说”(The Third - Person Effect Hypothesis)由戴维森(W· Phillips Davison)在其《传播的第三者效果》(1983年)一文中提出.其假设是,人们倾向于夸大和高估大众媒介的消息对他人态度和行为的影响.该假设的基本思想是:特定的消息“对你我这样的人没有什么效果,但是一般读者会受到很大的影响”.第三者效果假说包含两个部分:1.知觉假说:人们认为大众媒介的内容对其他人会比对自己的影响大.这是人们对媒介效果的看法,与感觉有关.2.行为假说:有了上面的认知,人们可能采取某些相应的行动.这是间接的媒介效果,与行为有关.拉维奇和斯坦纳(Lavidge&Steiner)建立起来的传播效果阶梯模式①可以说明运用社会心理学的知识来分析第三者效果是合理且有解释力的.从这一模式可以看出受众心理在媒介效果的产生上是有引发性的作用的.在确定这种分析路径是合理的之后,本文将从以下方面解释“第三者效果”发生的原因.     

大学生与超级女声:“第三者效果假说”——广州和成都两地问卷调查之比较研究

“超级女生”是2005年度我国最流行的一档电视娱乐节目。超级女声在大学生中也引发了收视热潮。本研究以传播学中经典的“第三者效果假说”作为理论指导,以“大学生到底如何收看超级女声节目?”作为研究问题。本研究对于取自广州和成都的两个大学生子样本进行了问卷调查。数据分析发现,在大学生中,不论是观众还是非观众均倾向于认为,别人受节目的影响要大于自己所受的影响,即“第三者效果”占据了绝对的主导地位。同时,多元线性回归分析则显示:“相对心理理性度”等几个变量对于“第三者效果的强度”的影响具有统计显著性。这是第一个立足于我国大陆的传播实践、专门针对“第三者效果假说”的规范而严谨的实证研究。     

网络环境中的"第三人效果":社会距离与认知偏差

"第三人效果"假设认为,在大众传播中,每个人都认为他人所受的影响远大于自己所受的影响。"第三人效果"与当事人的知识水平、传播内容的负面或有害程度以及当事人与他人之间的社会距离密切相关。在网络所构建的虚拟环境中,"第三人效果"假设仍旧存在,且与社会距离和认知偏差呈现高度的正相关。"第三人效果"假设可为考察网络传播效果提供新的研究视角。     

距离设置对节目效果的影响

在日常生活中,我们发现人与人交流中,不同的“距离”能导致微妙的关系和想象。正如阿恩海姆所言,“每一次观看活动就是一次视觉判断”,在电视节目中,由视觉形象所处的位置,摄像机、主持人的运动,甚至话题的偏转,都会对“距离”产生不同的影响,进而影响节目效果。本文试结合《艺术与视知觉》中的相关理论和电视节目案例,探讨距离设置对节目效果造成的影响。     

第三者的媒介形象建构分析

本文采用内容分析法,对《现代快报》、《北京青年报》、《华西都市报》在2008-2010年中以"第三者"为主要内容所涉及的54篇报道进行分析,旨在探究所呈现出的"第三者"媒介形象。结果表明,对于第三者的负面报道占绝大多数,多以声讨者的角度报道事件,对于第三者自身心理探寻,精神需求,人身权益保障以及造成第三者现象的根本原因等问题涉及不多。进而引发笔者思考,媒介关于第三者的报道对于受众对第三者的看法以及应对第三者现象的方式方法是否有影响。     

IN语

虽然物价越来越贵,可我们毕竟越来越贱了。长寿秘诀：保持呼吸．不要断气．晚上不要讲鬼故事．因为人爱听。鬼也爱听。距离产生的不是美．而是第三者。     

第三者婚姻侵权法律责任的法理探析

第三者插足他人婚姻家庭生活现象在当今社会已司空见惯。这种现象的存在严重影响家庭生活的稳定和青少年的健康成长。因此,本文着重从夫妻的配偶权和财产权角度,研究第三者是否应承担起其对婚姻关系的侵权责任。     

企业社会责任报道的第三人效果实证检验(英文)

第三人效果假说预言了人们在评估大众传播效果时会过分估计媒介对他人的影响比自身大,而由于企业社会责任的外部性特征,新闻媒体对其的报道能引起广泛的影响与关注。本文沿用第三人效果的研究思路,以215个调查样本实证研究了企业社会责任报道的第三人效果,发现大学生群体对企业社会责任报道存在第三人认知偏差,社会距离、个人卷入程度影响第三人认知效果,性别和媒体关注度是影响大学生第三人效果的显著变量。     

青少年对广告负面影响的第三人效果研究

第三人效果是一种受众认为媒体对其他人的影响大于对他们自己影响的现象。本研究旨在探索不同年龄阶段的受访者对广告负面影响是否存在第三人效果认知,并探索年龄和社会距离与第三人效果认知之间的关系。对447名学生调查发现:初中、高中和大学各年龄阶段的受访者都存在显著的第三人效果认知;受访者认为小生学最容易受到广告的影响,其次为同龄其他人,最小为中老年人;第三人效果认知并没有随着受访者的年龄增大而增强。本研究结果意味着年龄可能并非是受访者判断自己与他人差距的标准,而可能是专业知识或社会经验。     

第三者的媒介形象建构分析

第三者是当前人们感情生活中提及频率很高的词汇,也成为媒体报道的热点话题。由第三者参与的感情纠纷、民事纠纷、刑事案件层出不穷,媒体也为了迎合受众的固有观念将第三者丑陋的一面展示出来。但作为媒介,客观、全面的报道新闻事件是其责任,第三者的媒介形象构建有待加强。     

Time span of news coverage as an antecedent of perceptual and behavioral components of third-person effect

This study extends the research of the third-person effect by examining the effect of time span of media message on perceptual and behavioral components of the third-person effect. Using a survey of Hong Kong residents, the study explores perceived media effect of the news coverage of a short- and a long-term issue and the predictor of intention to take action to reduce negative effect. The results revealed no third-person effect by the short-term messages and the reverse third-person effect (first-person effect) by the long-term messages. There was a significant difference in discrepancy between the perceived media effect on self and others (third-person perception) produced by the messages of the short- and long-term issue. The study also found that perceived media effect on self is a stronger predictor of intention to take action to reduce the negative effects of the short- and long-term issue than the third-person effect.     

Third-Person Perception and Sexual Risk Taking Among Minority `At-Risk' Youth

Fifteen years ago, Davison (1983) introduced the third-person effect hypothesis that individuals believe they are less influenced than others by media messages. Although third-person effect is a perceptual bias, Davison believed that individuals act on such misperceptions. Few studies have tested the behavioral aspect of the third-person effect. In addition, previous studies reporting differences in third-person effect due to message type (i.e. Public Service Announcements [PSAs] vs. advertisements) lacked controls to isolate the effects of message type from content and context. In this study, I sought to (a) document third-person effect among minority "at-risk" youth within the context of safer sex messages, (b) determine the differences in third-person effects (if any) between PSAs and advertisements with similar content, and (c) determine the link (if any) between third-person effect and risky sexual behaviors among youth. Findings indicate that third-person effect is an appropriate framework for understanding how at-risk youth perceive safer sex campaigns. I also extend the behavioral aspect of third-person hypothesis by linking it with sexual risk behaviors among at-risk youth. No difference in third-person effect was found as a result of different message types. Relevance of the current findings to the broader areas of health communication and message effects is discussed.     

Do You See What I See?: Third-Person Effects on Public Communication Through Self-Esteem,Social Stigma,and Product Use

In this experiment I examined the effect of self-esteem, negative stigma of product in a message, and product use as a form of ego-involvement on the third-person effect in an effort to understand the variables underlying the third-person effect. The findings broaden 1 belief about the third-person effect in relation to public communication and call into question 2 others. This has ramifications in the area of public opinion regarding socially stigmatized messages, particularly in the realm of tobacco and alcohol advertising, suggesting the perception that a publicly communicated message containing a social stigma can influence the level of the third-person effect, indirectly affecting public communication and opinion formation.     

Understanding Person Perceptions: Comparing Four Common Statistical Approaches to Third-Person Research

This article addresses whether current methods of measurement are sufficient to reflect all nuances of the third-person effect. We do so by content analyzing all major third-person effect (3PE) articles, assessing measurement and analysis approaches employed by 3PE researchers. We revisit data from two published studies, comparing analytical models that emerged as commonly used by 3PE researchers (i.e., the standard subtractive measure, Whitt's Diamond model, first- and third-person estimates entered separately, and the subtractive measure with self-estimates as a control). Ultimately our analysis helps us understand past research and makes suggestions for research approaches in the future. First, researchers need to more carefully explore the role of first- and third-person perceptions in the behavioral hypothesis. Second, using only one analytical model does not tell the complete story. To that end, we propose a multimodel approach to analyses in third-person research be applied to extant and future work in this area.     

网络环境下“第三人效果”延时

本文将第三人效果假设放在网络意见形成的过程中进行分析,发现第三人效果存在延时现象,并就此现象进行解释。     

自我尊重、自我效能与第三人效果中的自我-他人差异

本文在过去的研究发现由自尊能预测第三人效果的结论的基础上,把自尊划分为自我尊重与自我效能两个维度来探讨自尊与第三人效果之间的关系。研究发现,自我尊重程度较高的受众往往会高估他人受到的负面影响;而自我效能程度越高的受众则倾向于认为自己受到的负面影响较小。因此,有别于过去研究认为自我尊重或自我效能较能预测第三人效果的结论,研究者认为,自我尊重和自我效能共同作用于自我-他人差异的感知,进而都可能会对第三人效果构成显著影响。     

THE 'OTHER' AS THE VULNERABLE VOTER: A STUDY OF THE THIRD-PERSON EFFECT IN THE 1988 U.S. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN

The tendency for individuals to perceive a greater impact ofmedia messages on others than on the self, Davison (1983) argues,has led to a number of policy decisions in which éliteshave exercised control of mass media messages in order to ‘protect’vulnerable others. The third-person effect has been well-documentedin experimental research with little attention to its theoreticalunderpinnings, or its antecedents or consequences. This articleargues that the third-person effect can be understood throughattribution theory, especially through the concepts of self-servingbias and effectance motivation. Second, it demonstrates thatthe third-person effect is influenced by certain social structuralfactors, media use patterns, and perceived harm of content.Finally, while perceptions of harm are related to perceptionsof influence, influence does not play a role in predicting supportfor external control of media content, while perceived harmhas a significant impact.     

An Investigation of First- versus Third-Person Risk Narrative Processing Through the Lens of the Heuristic-Systematic Model

This online experiment analyzed the effect of first- versus third-person risk narratives on 235 female college students’ affect, attitudes, risk perceptions and thoughts regarding tanning beds through the lens of the heuristic-systematic model. Participants receiving a third-person narrative reported a greater number of systematic thoughts as compared to those receiving a first-person narrative. Regardless of condition, participants reported significantly more systematic thoughts as compared to heuristic thoughts. Narrative researchers should take note that not all narratives may be processed in a heuristic manner as largely proposed by past research. Future research should delve further into the reasons why third-person messages may be processed higher along the heuristic-systematic continuum.     

“I'm Not Influenced by Ads,But Not Everyone's Like Me”: The Third-Person Effect in Israeli Women's Attitude Toward TV Commercials and Their Images

In this article the author examines expressions of the third-person effect found in an extensive feminist reception study investigating, for the first time, how Israeli women interpret images of women and femininity in TV commercials. Adopting the feminist and interpretive approach, the qualitative study was based on in-depth personal interviews with Israeli women from diverse cultural, economic, and social backgrounds. Grounded theory methodology, used for analysis of the interviews, revealed unexpected expressions of the third-person effect in the women's discourse on the potential influence of the images on different categories of “others.” The article presents this evidence and discusses its significance in the Israeli sociocultural context. As such, it uses different methodology in examining expressions of third-person effect than is traditionally used in this field.     

MASS MEDIA AND POLITICAL OUTSPOKENNESS IN HONG KONG: LINKING THE THIRD-PERSON EFFECT AND THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE

This study analyzes the impact of perceptions of the opinionsof others on political outspokenness in Hong Kong. Two relatedtheories, the third-person effect and the spiral of silence,are tested in the context of public opinion regarding the Sino-Britishdispute over Hong Kong's political future. To estimate the potentialinfluence of perceived public opinion on political outspokennessduring this political crisis, a representative telephone surveyof 660 respondents in Hong Kong was conducted in November 1993. As hypothesized by the third-person effect, perceptions of theinfluence of media reports about the Sino-British dispute onothers were found to be consistently greater than perceptionsof influence on self. Similar to previous findings, respondentswith a higher level of education were more likely to believethat the mass media influence others more than themselves. Thestudy also found empirical support for the spiral of silencehypothesis. Politically unconcerned respondents were less willingto voice their political opinions publicly when they perceivedthe majority opinion not to be on their side. Findings alsoindicate that the third-person effect indirectly influencesthe spiral of silence process through its impact on perceptionsof public opinion.