IMS LD规范视域下的“学习单元”设计

怎样基于教育建模语言（Educational Modeling Language,简称EML）开展形式化层次的教学设计,是教学设计自动化领域中一个值得探讨的问题。IMSLD规范是一种经过改造的EML,具有目标、性质、基础、体系、提出者等五个方面的特点。基于IMSLD规范的学习（单元）设计有四条原理：指导思想原理、要素结构原理、设计层次原理、创设流程原理。从九个维度进一步对国际上已经推出的20多个IMSLD工具进行了归类和比较,并以《教育技术原理》教改课程为例,阐述了基于IMSLD规范的“学习单元”设计的具体过程,简介了“学习单元”设计制品的四条应用途径。     

Investigate and Decide Learning Environments: Specializing Task Models for Authoring Tool Design

The complexities of building educational software can be reduced by relying on appropriate tools for adapting and re-using similar, previous applications. Although researchers have been creating tools for automating some aspects of software design, most of these tools typically aim for generality, attempting to cover a broad class of interactive programs in many domains. However, this approach may not be effective for building complex interactive systems, and fails to re-apply the instruction and design expertise implicit within prior software applications. An alternative is to provide tools which use specialized, rather than general, task models, tailored specifically to a target category of software. In addition, an understanding of the authoring task itself can inform the design of such specialized authoring environments. This article presents a prototype authoring tool for interactive educational software, called IDLE-Tool. Investigate and Decide Learning Environments (IDLE) is introduced as the task model around which the tool is based, and a model of the authoring process, called Guided Case Adaptation, is offered as an approach to employing the model and an exemplar in tandem to effectively support the design process.     

Learning How to Believe: Epistemic Development in Cultural Context

Although Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs), also called knowledge-based tutors, are becoming more common and proving to be increasingly effective, each one must still be built from scratch at a significant cost. At the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, we have developed domain independent tools for authoring all aspects of a knowledge-based tutor: the domain model, the teaching strategies, the student model, and the learning environment. In this article, I describe these tools, discuss a number of design issues and design tradeoffs that are involved in building ITS authoring tools, and discuss knowledge acquisition and representation issues encountered in my work. I also describe how we plan to use these tools (collectively called Eon), including ontology objects, as a meta-authoring tool for designing special-purpose authoring tools tailored for specific domain types.     

Ensuring Content‐Area Learning by Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

Three factors tied with secondary student success in content‐area reading are demonstrated: (a) validated teacher‐focused and student‐focused interventions, (b) integrated and comprehensive service delivery systems, and (c) well‐designed, data‐based professional developmental programs. Difficult challenges face secondary students with LD and their teachers with regard to these students’ participation and success in required general education classes. Recently, instructional methods and materials have been developed and validated for promoting these students’ success. Some of them focus on how general education teachers plan and teach their content‐area courses; others focus on giving students the strategies they need to respond independently to the demands of their courses. This article describes these instructional methods, a service‐delivery model for implementing these interventions in secondary schools, and professional‐development mechanisms and administrative support that must be in place for the model to be maintained effectively.     

Some uneasy inquiries into ID expert systems

Alternative approaches to developing software automating instructional development are described in this article. Information management and expert system approaches are compared. General assumptions underlying the development of all authoring tools, including conventional authoring systems, and additional assumptions underlying the development of expert ID tools are identified. Questions are raised concerning the viability of ID automation tools. It is argued that conventional authoring systems may not be as inadequate or inferior as ID expert system developers have claimed, and that of two approaches to ID automation, tools emphasizing information management are probably most useful. Information management tools, however, still may be inappropriate in some contexts.     

Teachers’ and students’ perspectives on teaching and learning through virtual learning environments

The aim of this investigation was to get an insight into how teachers and students responded to the use of virtual learning environments (VLE) in engineering education and what their expectations were from online courses. Teachers designed their online courses with the assistance of a support e-learning team and questionnaires were used for teachers and students to express their views on the online courses. Teachers pointed out that the online courses by themselves would be able to tackle limited lecture time and strengthen the students’ background knowledge. Students, on the other hand, stated that their difficulties regarding the courses could be facilitated by using a more interactive teaching approach with the use of collaboration tools and receiving individual feedback. Thus, students suggested that teachers adopt a more student-centred approach by using VLE. Teachers’ and students’ perspectives were related to their personal characteristics, as students were more familiar with everyday e-communication tools.     

Generative aspects of the Computer Based Educational Software System (CBESS)

A system of computer-based instruction (CBI) authoring and delivery tools was developed in which generative CBI techniques were used to dynamically create instructional presentations from content databases during program execution. Three applications using these techniques are examined with regard to trade-offs between case of development and limitations imposed by program specificity: 1) A semantic network was used to represent large bodies of terse facts to be memorized. The need for authors to create large numbers of question screens was avoided by a feature enabling questions and foils to be generated on-the-fly from database assertions as the student programs ran. 2) Technical vocabulary training was accomplished with a generative approach in which an array of student learning activities were automatically generated from a database minimally consisting of technical terms and their definitions. 3) A more difficult program allowed greater interface and lesson control flexibility for creating more sophisticated practice lessons in which new instances were dynamically inserted into templates for questions, anticipated answers and feedback. A common application theme emerging from field-testing the programs was their use in learning resource centers to address specific learning objectives from larger courses.     

Evaluation of a Computer-Supported Learning System

Educational content on the Internet is rapidly increasing. Academics and businesses are placing more course material online to supplement classroom and business training situations. In addition, significant increases in undergraduate enrollments in information system courses, and the rapid pace of new knowledge in the field, have led researchers to call for new innovative approaches to learning. Prior researchers have reported that this new Web‐based training technology (which has its foundation in computer‐based training) has not integrated sound pedagogical practices into the authoring process when developing new tutorials. This paper summarizes an experiment to evaluate the effect on posttest scores of a Web‐based authoring tool that prompts the developer to build multiple presentation styles into the learning module. Early results indicate that the tool is more effective than traditional HTML‐authoring tools and that the number of exercises affects posttest scores in a positive manner. No effect on posttest scores was observed for the number of examples in the learning module.     

Authoring Tools for Component-Based Learning Environments

We argue that a focus on building an authoring tool for a complete learning environment is misplaced. An analysis of the task of authoring a commercial educational system reveals it to be best accomplished through authoring separate components. For many of these components, authoring tools already exist and need not be duplicated for use in educational systems. Connecting the various components together is a separate authoring task, and parts of this task are different for educational systems than for typical component-based software. The second half of this article describes the Visual Translator, an authoring tool we have written specifically for this purpose.     

A Practical Introduction to Authoring for Computer-Assisted Instruction. Part 5: PHILVAS

Interactive videodisc technology is likely to have a significant impact upon many aspects of education and training. However, before this medium can be effectively utilized considerable attention must be given to overcoming the present problems associated with courseware authoring. Solutions to these problems are to be found in the provision of suitable courseware development aids. In particular, there is a requirement for a powerful and easy-to-use author language. This paper describes the approach used by the PHILVAS authoring system.     

Helping Teachers Formulate Sound Test Accommodation Decisions for Students with Learning Disabilities

This paper introduces a data-based approach as an alternative way to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for students with LD. Three rationales for the approach are provided: (a) an inadequate research base to guide decision-making; (b) the heterogeneity of the LD population; and (c) problems with teachers' use of subjective judgment. Well-controlled studies on test accommodations are too scarce to draw firm conclusions about effects for the group of students labeled learning disabled (LD). Moreover, in light of the heterogeneity of learning disabilities, the individual, rather than the LD label, may be the more appropriate unit for deciding which test accommodations preserve the validity of test scores for students with LD. In this paper, we provide a rationale for a data-based approach to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for individual students with LD. Then we describe an objective assessment process teachers may use in determining valid test accommodations. We conclude with recommendations for practitioners.     

ESCOT: Coordinating the Influence of R&D and Classroom Practice to Produce Educational Software From Reusable Components

In a 3-year project, a consortium of university, nonprofit and commercial educational software developers formed a testbed for the rapid assembly of educational software from reusable component tools. This testbed incorporated interactive learning tools from a variety of university, nonprofit, and commercial developers, and hosted decentralized authoring teams consisting of teachers, developers and educational technologists. Within its testbed, the Educational Software Components of Tomorrow (ESCOT) project achieved notable success in (a) producing a large collection of technology-rich learning activities with reuse rates estimated at 90% and (b) scaffolding authoring teams in successful and rewarding collaborative development experiences. Fortunately, since ESCOT was funded as a National Science Foundation research project, we have had time to reflect on the conditions that led to our achievements. In this article, we reflect on the three activities of the project that we believe were most responsible for its success: (1) the selection of a unit of software production (2) the development of a strategy to allow reuse of interoperable software components and (3) the structuring of a distributed, team-based authoring process. We observe that a common characteristic across these activities was reciprocal influence from both the fields of research-based software development and teaching practice.     

Interactive technology and authoring tools: A historical review and analysis

Computer systems, interactive technologies, and the software tools for authoring multimedia programs have evolved over the past several decades. The evolution of multimedia technology is discussed and current alternatives for authoring multimedia programs are described. Issues related to analyzing authoring tool requirements and selecting software are presented and trends in the evolution of authoring tools are identified. Many factors affecting the selection and use of authoring software are exogenous to the technology itself. Both technological trends and market forces must be considered.     

Equipping novice teachers with a learning map to enhance teaching practice

Using tools to support learning design has been proven feasible in improving the integration of technology into the curriculum. However, novice teachers are faced with two major issues, including their limited experience in learning design and limited ability in using new technologies. Learning map is explored and developed in e-Textbooks to serves as a scaffolding for novice teachers during their development into expert teachers. This paper presents a case study in which learning map is integrated into learning design with associated resources in an e-Textbook authoring environment. The participants were instructed to complete a learning design task for an e-Textbook during a one-hour session and then complete a questionnaire afterward. The results indicate that novice teachers value the learning map for learning design in e-Textbooks regardless of their background in ICT teaching and learning design. Novice teachers adopt positive attitudes toward the use of templates because of their numerous benefits. The teachers also suggested that better quality templates should be integrated into the authoring tool to distinguish the advantage of e-Textbook learning design from that of a traditional book and to provide them with additional options.     

Adolescents with Learning Disabilities as Writers: Are We Selling Them Short?

This article chronicles the evolution of a programmatic line of research on strategic writing instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) conducted by staff and affiliates of the University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning. The goal associated with this research is that students with LD learn the writing skills that they need to succeed in high school and beyond and that their skills are comparable to the skills of their peers. Individual studies have shown that adolescents with LD can master a given writing strategy and can apply that strategy to novel prompts and in general education classes. Moreover, they can learn simple writing strategies from computerized programs. They can also maintain use of a writing strategy over time. When students learn several writing strategies, their scores on standardized tests improve, and their writing competency is comparable to that of peers. Studies have also shown that teachers can teach the writing strategies and achieve successful results. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that students with LD receive the instruction under conditions where they have multiple opportunities to reach mastery on each skill and receive individualized feedback on practice attempts. Overall, the research has shown that adolescents with LD can learn complex writing skills such as planning, writing, and editing multiparagraph themes; can apply these skills to tasks that are assigned in required general education courses; and can be successful in those courses.     

Drawing Nature of Science in Pre-service Science Teacher Education: Epistemic Insight Through Visual Representations

Developing pre-service science teachers’ epistemic insight remains a challenge, despite decades of research in related bodies of work such as the nature of science (NOS) in science education. While there may be numerous aspects to this problem, one critical element is that the NOS is a meta-concept that demands higher-order cognitive skills. One possible strategy to facilitate pre-service teachers’ understanding of epistemic aspects of science is visualisation. Visual representations of objects and processes can be tools for developing and monitoring understanding. Although the NOS and visualisation literatures have been studied extensively, the intersection of these bodies of literatures has been minimal. Incorporating visual tools on the NOS in teacher education is likely to facilitate teachers’ learning, eventually impacting their students’ learning of the NOS. The objective of this paper is to illustrate how the visual tools of scientific knowledge and practices aspects of the NOS can be integrated in science teacher education in order to develop pre-service teachers’ epistemic insight. The paper presents an empirical study that incorporated visual tools about the NOS in primary science teacher education. Data on 14 pre-service teachers’ are presented along with in-depth case studies of 3 pre-service teachers illustrating the influence of the teacher education intervention. The qualitative analysis of visual representations before and after the intervention as well as verbal data suggests that there was improvement in pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the NOS. Implications for future research on visualisation of the NOS are discussed.     

学习分析技术支持下的教师在线学习行为特征分析

在线学习已成为教师专业发展的主要途径,参加学习的人员规模大、行为表现复杂。为了探析教师在线学习行为的群体特征,该文以Y市四期教师在线培训为例,应用统计分析、序列分析、关联规则、社会网络分析等方法,从学习活跃、学习投入时间、学习行为序列、社会交互四个方面分析了教师在线学习行为的群体特征。研究发现:教师在线学习活跃性较高;在线学习时间投入充足;在线学习目的性较强且行为活动方式简单;社会交互情况不够理想。因此,建议实施在线学习与线下集中研讨相结合的混合式教师培训,培训安排与支持服务、学习内容与活动设计应符合教师在线学习规律,并提供有效的技术脚手架和干预机制,以期提高教师培训效益。     

Choosing teachers: Exploring agency and structure in the distribution of newly qualified teachers

This paper theorises aspects of the distribution of newly qualified teachers in England, which is not arbitrary but patterned with differential effects upon socially distanced learners. As part of a larger project exploring the sociological strategies and stratification whereby teachers choose, and are chosen, for their first teaching post, I consider here the stories of Susan and Ben. These two newly qualified teachers of mathematics both accepted posts in schools while on initial teacher education courses but quickly relocated to increase the harmony between their teaching dispositions (habitus) and the type of school (habitat) in which they were to be working. Bourdieu's sociological tools are mobilised to theorise aspects of teacher distribution and the potential inequity resulting from the aggregation of such strategies and ‘corrections’.     

Legitimising Sketchbooks as a Research Tool in an Academic Setting

This paper describes the development of criteria for the production, marking and external examination of sketchbooks as research tools. The sketchbooks are developed in the Department of Education at Liverpool University in two settings: by students on a one- year Post Graduate Certificate of Education courses (PGCE), training to be primary teachers, and by practising primary teachers on Certificate of Advanced Studies in Education courses (CASE). In this setting the sketchbooks are weighted as the equivalent of a 5,000 word essay.