Operant Techniques in School Psychology

In recent years there has been increasing recognition of the fact that the role of the school psychologist in this country is changing. The conception of the school psychologist as psychometrician and clinician has given way to the notion that the school psychologist may best serve school needs by functioning as a consultant to the school (Derner, 1965; Leton, 1964; McDaniel & Ahr, 1965; Schmidt & Pena, 1964). A major part of consultant service involves work with teachers regarding the problems of children. The purpose of the present article is to describe the usefulness of operant techniques in enabling the school psychologist to implement effectively this aspect of his newly acquired consultant role. In a child's environment events precede and follow behavior. Events subsequent to behavior may accelerate the behavior, decelerate the behavior, or have no observable effect. Most subsequent events in a child's environment occur unsystematically. When the school psychologist aids teachers in arranging planned schedules of particular events to follow specific child behavior the operant approach is being employed. Figure 1 illustrates the operant paradigm.     

Intervention with the selectively mute child

The term selectively mute describes children who actively choose to speak to a few people in selected environments. It is most commonly used to describe nonverbal behavior in the school setting. In this paper, the literature from both the psychoanalytic and learning theory approaches is first reviewed and then the intervention strategies used with two selectively mute children are presented in terms of the underlying principles upon which the interventions were based. Implications for the school psychologist are discussed.     

Brief therapy: Ronny G

Because of evolving professional roles, limited resources, and administrative concerns, school psychologists have been exploring alternative methods of intervention. Brief therapy is an active, focused, incisive intervention especially useful with children typically seen by the school psychologist because of emotional adjustment problems. This paper illustrates the process of brief therapy with a parent and presents some implications for the school psychologist.     

Depression,suicide, and the gifted student: A primer for the school psychologist

Growing up gifted often means growing up “different.” As schools struggle to provide appropriately designed interventions for student mental health issues, the role of the school psychologist is becoming increasingly important. In the present article, the role of the school psychologist is discussed, particularly as related to helping gifted students who may be manifesting symptoms of depression, suicidal ideation, and potentially suicidal behavior. Further, a holistic intervention approach is advocated and that accounts for four growth factors—intrapersonal, interpersonal, environmental/contextual, and developmental. Importantly, the specific strategies discussed are designed to help the school psychologist in their many capacities of helping gifted students thrive. Increasingly, however, it must also be recognized that the role of the school psychologist has expanded in recent years, and thus many of the intervention strategies offered may require a team of professionals to effectively implement. Regardless, the strategies discussed are designed to help gifted students thrive in the school setting.     

“Reframing:” A tool for the school psychologist

Psychologists working in schools spend much time conducting psychological evaluations and reporting their findings to parents, who often do not follow through upon the recommendations made. Conceptualization of a child's problem integrating a family systems perspective with the individual assessment data enables the school psychologist to make an effective intervention in the single session meeting with parents following the evaluation. Application of the paradoxical technique “reframing,” borrowed from the family systems strategic model, gives the school psychologist a tool for mobilizing increased commitment on the part of the parents toward resolving a child's problem as a joint endeavor. The family is offered a formulation of the child's problem in interactional terms, with no one held to blame. A proposition is offered that connotes the underlying motivation in a positive light, and gives the family a new definition of the situation. Three case examples are given to illustrate application of this technique in a school setting.     

School psychologists' perceptions of physically aggressive student behavior as a referral concern in nonurban districts

This survey questioned practicing school psychologists in the state of Wisconsin regarding their experience with the number of behavioral referrals for which physically aggressive behavior was the principal concern. Increases of at least a moderate degree were perceived by school psychologists across grade levels. Survey items further investigated school psychologists' perceptions regarding the stability of teacher-assault incidences and weapons violations over the past 10 years. Implications for an expanded role for the school psychologist in prevention and intervention procedures are discussed.     

Family systems theory and school psychology: Implications for training and practice

The purpose of this article is to: (a) present an overview of family systems perspectives as they relate to the functioning of the school psychologist, (b) review briefly current available levels of family intervention, and (c) present guidelines for training school psychologists in family dynamics and family therapy. The position is taken that a family systems approach is complex and necessitates extensive coursework in family theory and therapy approaches, practica, and field supervision. As a result, while a family systems perspective is essential, family therapy will not in all probability be standard in entry level training programs, but should be a specialty level or doctoral level option.     

Pilot evaluation of the Whole Inclusive School Empowerment (WISE) project in kindergartens in Hong Kong: A mixed method approach

This pilot study used a quasiexperimental design to evaluate the Whole Inclusive School Empowerment (WISE) project providing educational psychology services to kindergartens to support students with diverse learning needs. There were eight intervention kindergartens that received WISE educational psychology services and eight control kindergartens without the service. The intervention kindergartens were provided with a 0.125 educational psychologist and 0.7 teacher coordinator. In January and June 2017, teachers in intervention and control kindergartens completed questionnaires assessing student behavior, school readiness, and their own teaching efficacy. Focus group sessions involving teachers and school principals were conducted in July 2017. The results indicated a greater improvement in prosocial behavior and school readiness in intervention kindergartens compared with control kindergartens. Teachers and principals reported that they were better equipped in supporting diverse learning needs. The results provided initial evidence supporting the effectiveness of educational psychology services for kindergartens in improving student outcomes.     

School psychology and medical diagnosis: The fragile X syndrome

A fragile site on the X chromosome has been implicated in developmental disabilities among both males and females who possess learning disabilities, mental retardation, attention deficit disorders, and behavior problems. For the most part, medical diagnosis has been of little value to the school psychologist or educator. The diagnosis of fragile X syndrome does possess specific educational implications, especially during the early school years. Data on the characteristics and treatment of patients that can assist the school psychologist in program planning and appropriate referral are presented. The school psychologist is in a most advantageous position to recognize children who are in need of medical consultation and chromosomal analysis. Treatment includes appropriate educational programming, trials of folic acid among prepubescent males, and medical treatment for those manifesting an attention deficit disorder. Family counseling is available for “at-risk” families and should include prenatal diagnosis.     

Four alternative approaches to the family/school liaison role

Psychologists in the public schools traditionally have spent a small portion of their time working with parents. There is, however, a need for the psychologist to act as a family/school liaison agent whose function is to promote collaborative problem-solving efforts regarding problematic child behavior. Four different approaches to working with school personnel and/or family representatives are presented, including information imparter-gatherer, facilitator, consultant/educator or consultant, and counselor/educator. Advantages and disadvantages of each approach as well as trends in the research relevant to these approaches are discussed.     

Family Conflict,Mood, and Adolescents' Daily School Problems: Moderating Roles of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms

Using daily diary data, this study examined cross‐day associations between family conflict and school problems and tested mediating effects of daily negative mood and moderating effects of psychological symptoms. For 2 weeks, parents and adolescents (N = 106; M_age = 15.4) reported daily conflict; adolescents reported daily negative mood and school problems. Results indicated bidirectional, multiday spillover between parent–adolescent conflict and school problems with daily negative mood statistically accounting for spillover both within and across days. Externalizing symptoms strengthened links between father–adolescent conflict and school problems, whereas depressive and anxious symptoms strengthened links between parent–adolescent conflict and daily negative mood. By demonstrating cross‐domain transmission of daily problems, these findings highlight the salience of everyday events as possible intervention targets.     

学龄儿童行为问题干预策略研究

儿童行为问题包括行为和情感两个方面,其成因不外乎先天自身因素和后天环境影响,课题组通过综述国内外儿童行为问题现状及成因的研究结果后,首次用流行病学病因轮状模型解释儿童行为问题的因果联系,并提出构建“家庭、学校、社会”三位一体支持系统的儿童行为问题干预策略。     

Preschool screening for behavior problems

The purpose of the study was to establish developmental norms for maternal-rated problem behaviors within a disadvantaged group of preschool children. The sample included 406 children between two and five years of age from lower socioeconomic families. Mothers completed the Behavior Problem Checklist (BPC) reporting the frequency of conduct (acting-out) and personality (inhibition) problems. The analyses investigated differences for males and females among four age groups for frequency of behavior problems. No significant age differences were found for either sex on the acting-out or inhibition dimensions of the BPC. The results revealed that the frequency of behavior problems becomes apparent at an early age and remains consistent throughout the preschool years. The consistency across age levels of these maternal-reported behavioral difficulties suggests that early screening with BPC is a viable procedure. The data are discussed in terms of their utility in assisting the school psychologist to select appropriate intervention strategies for the preschool child.     

Self-observation and completion of school assignments: The influence of a physical recording device and expectancy characteristics

This study investigated the effects of the presence or absence of a self-monitoring form and twice-weekly meetings with a psychologist on a third-grade student's school work completion. The results indicated that the physical presence of the recording device was necessary to influence completion of school assignments. The twice-weekly sessions with the psychologist without self-monitoring demonstrated minimal influence on the targeted behavior.     

Attachment theory: Implications for school psychology

The effective practice of school psychology requires a strong research and theoretical base, a framework that encompasses developmental processes and outcomes, both adaptive and maladaptive, which facilitates assessment and intervention and offers insight into classroom and family dynamics. Attachment theory provides the school psychologist with just such a framework. In the present article we provide a brief overview of attachment theory and describe risk factors for development of insecure attachment. Behavioral trajectories of children and adolescents according to attachment classification are discussed. Finally, student–teacher interactions within an attachment perspective and implications for interventions are presented. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 247–259, 2004.     

Two alternative roles for the school psychologist in the treatment of emotionally disturbed and autistic children

This paper will describe two alternative roles for the school psychologist working with programs for autistic children or programs for emotionally disturbed children. The first approach is concerned with behavior management of children either by consultation to program staff or by direct work with the child, as well as support of staff through continuous feedback of classroom behavior management techniques. The second approach encompasses all of the first approach, in addition to the psychologist serving as corrdinator for the program and thereby assuming greater responsibility for cooperation between the school and the home, as well as for ongoing program development. A major difference in these two roles of the school psychologist, compared to the traditional role, is an intense involvement with a small number of children and a high level of input into the management, structure, and techniques used in a small number of classrooms. The paper will present a model for both of the two alternative approaches for the school psychologist. The model will include: a format for ongoing behavior assessment, suggestions for the structure of teacher-psychologist feedback sessions, methods of school and home cooperation, and a proposal for a horizontal administrative structure of programs for emotionally disturbed and for autistic children. The concept that is advocated is a team of professionals (teacher and psychologist) planning for the holistic development of the child.     

Direct assessment of behavioral and emotional problems

New procedures for assessing the behavior of children in an environmental context are available to the school psychologist. The procedures, which are sometimes called psychosituational or informal assessments, examine the influence of the external environment as setting the occasion for emotional and behavioral problems. Covert speech of children also is viewed as an event which can occasion behavioral problems and can serve to reinforce and/or punish the behavior. Procedures are outlined for conducting the direct assessment.     

The elementary learning disability process group and the school psychologist

This paper proposes a model of a process group conducted with elemetary learning disabled students. The school psychologist is proposed as leader of the group. Five goals are identified and the process of the group is discussed. Specific procedures are mentioned to enable the school psychologist to conduct a process group. The process group can be an effective addition to the various intervention strategies used with learning disabled children.     

Behavior Concerns Among Low-Income,Ethnically and Linguistically Diverse Children in Child Care: Importance for School Readiness and Kindergarten Achievement

Research Findings: Recent research and teacher reports have highlighted the importance of early behavior skills for children’s school readiness and academic success in elementary school. Significant gaps in school readiness and achievement exist between children in poverty and those more affluent. Low-income children are also more likely to exhibit behavior concerns than their more financially advantaged peers. The current study examined the importance of behavior skills at age 4 for school readiness and academic achievement in kindergarten among an ethnically diverse sample of 1,618 low-income children (63% Latino, 37% Black) in an urban setting. Children’s early behavior concerns at age 4 were significantly associated with children’s school readiness scores and end-of-year kindergarten grades above and beyond the contributions of family and child demographics and children’s early cognitive and language skills. In addition, behavior problems were more strongly related to school readiness and kindergarten performance within English-dominant Latino children as opposed to Spanish-dominant Latino children. Practice or Policy: The findings from the current study provide support for targeting behavior skills, and not just preliteracy and/or number skills, prior to school entry as a strategy to increase the likelihood of low-income diverse children’s school readiness and school success. Behavior interventions are discussed.     

Profiles in the development of behavior disorders among youths with family maltreatment histories

Violent conduct by youths ranks among the types of inappropriate behavior generally originating in difficult family and social contexts. A proper understanding of the development of violent conduct must consider the situation taken as a whole. This article documents the results of a qualitative study which aimed to determine the psychosocial profiles and needs of youths with serious behavior problems and a family history of physical, psychological or sexual abuse. The results are based on the review of clinical files of 12 boys and 11 girls between the ages of 9 and 17, who were under child protection. The 23 files were analyzed to document the simultaneous evolution of behavior problems, abuse, family and school context, and the intervention of child protection services (reporting, evaluation, measures taken, foster care). The qualitative analysis followed the chronology and life history of each youth, resulting in the emergence of three generic profiles: the Undesirable, the Explosive, and the Delinquent. Each of the profiles is described and placed in perspective using the attachment, trauma and socialization theories respectively. The study concludes with proposals of distinct intervention models to be applied to these youths in the school environment.