Children’s Physical Activity and On-Task Behavior Following Active Academic Lessons

Sitting for extended periods of time is detrimental to children’s physical health and may cause off-task behavior in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a classroom physical activity (PA) program, TAKE 10!®, on children’s PA and on-task behavior. Participants in the program included 137 children from six classes (third to fifth grades) in one ethnically diverse elementary school in the Southwestern United States. Classroom teachers implemented 10-minute bouts of active academic TAKE 10!® lessons for 12 weeks (four weeks baseline and eight weeks intervention). PA was measured using pedometers and on-task behavior was measured using systematic observation in the classrooms. Children’s step counts increased significantly (p < 0.05) by 853 from baseline to end-intervention. There was also significant (p < 0.05) improvement in on-task behavior of 5.5%. Active academic lessons were effective in increasing children’s in-school PA and on-task behavior in the classroom.     

The effects of token reinforcement on delinquents' classroom behavior

The effects of a token reinforcement program on the classroom behavior of 19 delinquent boys in a correctional institution were investigated. Appropriate classroom behavior was defined in terms of four component categories: on-time/in-seat, on-task, social interaction, and assignment completion. A measure of total appropriate classroom behavior was calculated by summing the frequency of target response occurrence for each component behavior. Withdrawal and reinstatement of token reinforcement procedures demonstrated experimental control of total appropriate classroom behavior; however, considerable variability of component behaviors was observed. Token reinforcement control was most clearly demonstrated with on-time/in-seat behavior; assignment behavior was similarly influenced but showed greater variability; on-task behavior was noticeably affected but exhibited an ascending trend during the reversal phase; and social interaction behavior showed fluctuations which appeared unrelated to reinforcement contingencies. These findings suggest that the use of global, composite measures may mask program effects on important component behaviors.     

A naturalistic observation of verbal discipline modeling in a first grade classroom

Within the context of illustrating three observational techniques: Ad Lib., Focal Child, and All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, verbal disciplinary techniques as used by a regular classroom teacher and a student teacher are compared. Managing, Threatening, and Describing behaviors were observed as these were used as desist attempts by the teachers to stop inappropriate behaviors, and, presumably, to return the children to on-task behaviors.Since discipline is frequently a student teacher's most difficult task, some modeling of the classroom teacher's behaviors were expected to occur. This was found for discipline directed at individual children, but not total group disciplinary attempts. While the regular teacher produced more desists and was more effective in returning the children to on-task behavior, when disruptive children's sequential patterns of behavior were examined the most frequent response was something other than on-task behaviors. Questions are raised about what should be modeled, and when in a sequence of behaviors a teacher should intervene.University of Illinois     

Multimodal behavior therapy with elementary school children; rationale and case study

During the 1979-80 school year, a seven-year-old boy was treated with a Multimodal Behavior Therapy (MMBT) approach to counseling. The primary presenting problem evidenced by this youngster involved a low frequency of on-task behavior. While treatment strategies focused on specific modalities of the BASIC ID, the intervention package was built around three major parameters: (a) an emphasis on intervention in the classroom setting, (b) the use of treatment contracting, and (c) comprehensive assessment of client needs. Despite evidence suggesting that the client's teacher was not reinforcing him for on-task behavior, the youngster's on-task behavior increased from 10.5 minutes out of 30 minutes to the goal level of 20 minutes out of 30 by the end of the four weeks of treatment. At follow-up four months later, the client was engaged in on-task behavior for 17 minutes out of 30, and for 20.7 minutes out of 30 one and one-half years later, Implications for counseling with elementary school children are discussed, based on the three parameters listed above.     

The conflict between on-task and off-task actions in the classroom and its consequences for motivation and achievement

The relations between students’ value orientations, decisions in conflicts between on-task and off-task actions in the classroom, and experiences of motivational interference following these conflicts were investigated. It was expected that well-being value orientation was positively linked and achievement value orientation was negatively linked to decision for off-task behavior in such conflicts and that the higher students’ well-being value orientation, the higher their motivational impairment when deciding for the on-task behavior and the lower when deciding for the off-task behavior. For achievement orientation, the relationships were predicted to be reversed. The experience of motivational interference while performing on-task behavior was, in turn, expected to be related to worse grades. Data from 817 students (mean age 13.44) from 35 classrooms were collected using self-report questionnaires and analyzed in a series of hierarchical linear models. Analyses showed the relationships as predicted. All relationships found were comparable to the relationships found for a conflict between school and leisure actions after class. Results point out that even if students resist the off-task temptation in class, the mere possibility of off-task behavior can impair motivation and achievement.     

Value orientations as determinants and outcomes of conflicts between on-task and off-task actions in the classroom

Off-task behavior in the classroom was conceptualized as a manifestation of students pursuing goals they bring into the classroom aside from achievement goals. Regulation during on-task and off-task behavior in action conflict scenarios was elaborated on using the constructs motivational interference and flow. It was argued that achievement and well-being values that students hold can be determinants as well as outcomes of these conflict experiences. Data from 697 students (mean age 13.43) was collected at two time points within one school year. Results supported a reciprocal model in which value orientations (t1) lead to conflict variables (t2) as well as conflict variables (t1) to value orientations (t2).     

Keeping their attention: Classroom practices associated with behavioral engagement in first grade mathematics classes in China and the United States

This study investigated variation in students’ behavioral engagement across mathematics classes in China and the United States. Student behavioral engagement was examined along with two aspects of the classroom (group size and teacher instructions given about classroom behavior). Video observational data were collected and coded over 1051 time intervals in 35-minute mathematics sessions in Chinese classrooms (n = 8) and comparable American classrooms (n = 7). Latent growth analyses revealed that overall, behavioral engagement declined over time, although the drop-off was dramatically sharper in American classrooms relative to Chinese classrooms. In addition, larger group size and the timing of teacher instructions (given before versus after the behavior) were significantly associated with increased engagement. This study revealed compelling cultural differences as well as patterns in student and teacher behaviors associated with students engaging in on-task behaviors in the classroom. Implications for ways to promote effective classroom behavior are discussed.     

Student behaviors, teacher reinforcement, student ability, and learning

Ninety-eight children were observed for 6-min periods on each of 10 days during 50-min, small-group classes in either mathematics, science, geography, or language usage. Two student behaviors (on-task behavior and accuracy of responding to teacher-directed questions) and three types of teacher reinforcement (verbal reinforcement for on-task behavior and accurate responding and tangible reinforcers) were coded during each observation period. A post-test of achievement, directly related to the content of the lessons, was administered at the end of the 10 days of instruction. The causal effects of student behaviors, teacher reinforcement, and student ability (reading achievement and intelligence) on achievement were evaluated using path analysis. The strongest effects were from student ability measures, with accurate responding by students and teacher reinforcement of accurate responding exhibiting smaller, but significant effects. Findings are discussed to qualify the relationship between overt classroom behaviors and degree of learning and the mediating effects of student ability.     

Effects of instructions for on-task behavior and academic behavior: Two case studies

The effects of daily teacher instructions to “work hard” for the on-task behavior of two special education students during a math period were examined in a multiple-baseline design. The results indicated that teacher instructions could increase such behavior. Generalization to work output (the rate of correct math problems) was observed. Follow-up data revealed that the effects of the instructional procedure were of lasting duration. It was suggested that instructions could be an effective, inexpensive, easy to implement, and socially acceptable classroom intervention procedure.     

Behavior and achievement relationships with emotionally disturbed children: An applied study

Reciprocal relationships between on-task behavior and certain academic performance targets have been demonstrated in a number of short-term applied behavior analysis studies. These studies have not had emotionally disturbed or behavior disordered (ED/BD) children as subjects, and are generally not carried out over sufficient intervals to measure effects on standardized tests of achievement. Studies of ongoing programs over longer periods of time have shown inconsistent results when comparing levels of on-task behavior with standardized achievement gains. The present study questions the hypothesized relationship between on-task behaviors and standardized achievement with ED/BD children. Further, it seeks to determine significant relationships between certain specific on-task behaviors (e.g., completing assignments) and standardized achievement. Forty ED/BD children participated in a token economy over the course of an entire academic year. Minimal pre-post achievement gains (p < .01) and a high level of on-task behavior (84%) were noted, but there were no significant relationships between on-task behaviors and measured achievement. The results are discussed in the context of similar findings from other ongoing programs with ED/BD students. Suggestions are offered for investigating other classes of behavior (e.g., academic engaged time) with these children, in order to discover more consistent behavior-achievement relationships.     

COMPARING METHODS OF IDENTIFYING REINFORCING STIMULI IN SCHOOL CONSULTATION

Reinforcement-based interventions, the most frequently used treatments for school-age children, rely on accurately identifying stimuli that will serve to reinforce appropriate classroom behavior. Research has consistently demonstrated that the results from a forced-choice pairing procedure are the best predictors of reinforcing stimuli. Interestingly, systematic evaluation of potential reinforcers is rarely implemented in the school consultation setting. Considering the importance of the reinforcer on reinforcement-based interventions, and the literature focusing on the significance of the selection procedure on accurately identifying a reinforcer, this is concerning. The purpose of these two studies was to examine the effectiveness of identifying reinforcing stimuli for students in the consultation setting using two different methods: stimulus forced-choice and asking the teacher to identify potential reinforcers. The effectiveness of the selected stimuli as reinforcers was studied on two student outcomes: academic production and on-task behavior. The results of the two studies suggested that the reinforcers selected using a forced-choice procedure were more effective than the reinforcers selected from a teacher-identification procedure. Further, results indicated that although stimuli derived from both reinforcer assessment methods were useful at increasing rates of desired behavior, stimuli derived from the forced-choice reinforcer assessment were more consistently effective.     

The ADHD Classroom Kit: A whole-classroom approach for managing disruptive behavior

In this article, an inclusive treatment package for children with ADHD, The ADHD Classroom Kit (Kit), is described. Components of the Kit are categorized in three areas: consequences for appropriate behavior, consequences for inappropriate behavior, and peer-mediated interventions. The empirical rationale for each component of the Kit is discussed. Also, a case study of a 6-year-old girl (Carol) with reported disruptive behavior problems is presented as preliminary data supporting the Kit's effectiveness. An A-B-A reversal design was used in Carol's classroom. Mean frequencies of appropriate behavior were 61.3% (baseline), 78.5% (Kit), and 70.7% (reversal). In addition, mean frequencies of on-task behavior were 76.2% (baseline), 87.8% (Kit), and 82.5% (reversal). Implications for future research and practice with the Kit are addressed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A comparative study of the impact of integrated learning systems on students' time-on-task

Time-on-task has long been thought to be an important predictor of student learning and achievement. Thus, it is important to understand the extent to which computer-based instruction (CBI), in general, and more specifically, computerized integrated learning systems (ILSs) affect students' time-on-task behavior. This study reports data from a year-long, 14-school national study in which rigorous time-on-task measures were used to compare students' engaged time in three primary situations: (1) an ILS used in a computer laboratory configuration; (2) an ILS used in a distributed configuration (work stations distributed throughout a school's classrooms); and (3) regular classroom instruction in which no ILS was used. The results indicate that students using the ILS spend more time actively engaged in the learning tasks than students in the non-ILS classroom. This appears to be a very robust finding, occurring regardless of whether or not there is an adult present. It appears that the ILS provides a highly motivating learning environment that engages and maintains student attention. The level of on-task behavior is significantly higher than that found in more typical classroom settings. Further, the ILS showed a significant advantage in increasing time-on-task with at-risk students. Implications of this study for further research are also discussed.     

Effects of self-monitoring and contingent reinforcement on on-task behavior and academic productivity of learning-disabled students: A social validation study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the social validity of behavior change produced by self-monitoring and contingent reinforcement upon the on-task behavior and academic productivity of six learning-disabled students using a single-case, multiple-treatment design. Subjects self-monitored their on-task behavior while concurrent measures of academic productivity were collected. This study employed two phases of self-monitoring and contingent reinforcement. Self-monitoring was broken down into its component parts: self-observation and self-recording. Contingent reinforcement consisted of verbally reinforcing improvements and meeting goals set for both on-task behavior and academic productivity. On-task behavior and academic productivity improved under both interventions. Improvements were commensurate to levels of on-task behavior and academic productivity exhibited by the subjects' nonhandicapped peers. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Teacher stress and pupil behaviour explored through a rational-emotive behaviour therapy framework

Using the psychological framework of rational-emotive behaviour therapy, the principal aim of this study was to establish whether irrational beliefs, self-efficacy or pupil behaviour predicted teacher reports of stress. A secondary aim was to establish whether these variables, in addition to teachers’ verbal feedback to pupils in class, predicted on-task pupil behaviour. Participants consisted of 58 teachers from five secondary schools, who completed three self-report questionnaires examining teacher stress, self-efficacy and irrational beliefs. In addition, both teachers and pupils were systematically observed in class using a structured schedule. The results indicated that high self-reported irrational beliefs and low self-efficacy predicted high levels of teacher stress. In addition, high self-efficacy and low levels of negative comments directed at pupils’ social behaviour and academic work in the classroom predicted high levels of on-task pupil behaviour. The implications for supporting teachers in these areas are discussed.     

Classroom behavior of children and adolescents with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis

Meta-analysis was used to review the results of 25 studies that compared the classroom behavior of children and adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) to children without learning disabilities. The data were analyzed from several different methodological perspectives. Results showed that both methodologically strong and weak studies demonstrated significant behavioral deficits of children with learning disabilities compared to their nondisabled peers in each of five overall areas: on-task behavior, off-task behavior, conduct disorders, distractibility, and shy/withdrawn behavior. Both observational and teacher rating data demonstrated these differences. Effect sizes for both groups of studies seemed to cluster around 1 standard deviation, suggesting noticeable and educationally significant impairment in the behavior of children with disabilities. Analysis of grade-level effect sizes suggests some explanation for the large number of referrals often witnessed during the elementary school years. Educational implications of these behavioral differences in terms of implications for mainstreaming are discussed.     

Student achievement and differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior: Hand raising

Workbook reading achievement of five second-grade girls was assessed under two teacher-contact contingencies. Under one contingency, teacher contacts were made during on-task behavior. Under the other contingency, differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (DRI) was in effect, with teacher contacts contingent on students' hand-raising behavior. Both reading achievement and time on task were greater under the on-task contingency than under DRI for hand raising.     

Effects of feedback timing and motivational content on teachers' delivery of contingent social praise

This study examined the relative effects of feedback timing (delayed or immediate) and motivational content (goal-setting) on teachers' delivery of contingent social praise for on-task behavior. Two teachers of behaviorally disordered children and two youngsters from each class served as subjects. The study employed an adaptation of a single subject replication design. Teachers were exposed to four experimental conditions: baseline (no feedback), immediate feedback, delayed feedback, and delayed feedback plus goal-setting. These conditions were replicated either within or across teacher subjects. The results showed that all feedback tactics produced an increase in contingent social praise and student on-task behavior over baseline levels. However, the only statistically significant increases occurred when teachers were exposed to the delayed feedback plus goal-setting procedure.     

The impact of computer-mediated and traditional academic task presentation on the performance and behaviour of children with ADHD

This project aimed to examine whether the use of computers could have a positive impact on the performance of academic tasks and their behaviour whilst completing them of children with ADHD. This small exploratory study therefore investigated the impact of the use of a laptop computer, with and without stimulating animations and features incorporated into task presentation, on Key Stage 2 level science tasks. The effects of these different forms of computer presentation were examined in relation to performance on more traditionally presented, pen and paper, tasks. The results of this study revealed that, in contrast to typically developing children, participants with ADHD produced the greatest number of accurate responses on the more basic computerised tasks (presented as simple Microsoft Word documents) and exhibited significantly more on-task activity on animated computerised tasks. In summary, computerised presentation significantly improved the accuracy of responses and the on-task focus of participants with ADHD. These early findings are encouraging and may have wide reaching practical implications in terms of the design and implementation of educational software aimed at promoting improvements for children with ADHD in terms of both their academic performance and, critically, appropriate on-task focus and behaviour in the classroom.     

课堂环境与学生学习表现的因果关系研究——一个基于数学课堂的前实验研究

本研究主要采用单组前后测的方法,对吉林省长春市某小学的两个数学课堂进行了前实验研究。研究者将课堂环境量表以及课堂观察的结果反馈给实验教师,并与实验教师一起讨论每个班级数学课堂环境的干预方案。经过将近一年的干预实验,研究者对比了课堂环境的改变前后,学生的数学学习表现的变化。结果发现,数学课堂环境的改变能够导致学生的数学学习态度、数学观、数学学习取向以及问题解决能力的积极变化。