Relationships between self-concept and directly observed behaviors in kindergarten children

Twenty kindergarten children who were nominated by teachers as not being socially and academically competent (low-rated) and 36 kindergarten children who were nominated by teachers as competent (high-rated) participated in this study. Self-concept and academic achievement data were gathered on each subject. In addition, all children were observed in class, with particular attention to compliance/non-compliance with adult requests, on-task/off-task behavior, and positive/negative social behaviors with peers. The results indicate that: (a) The factor structure of the self-concept instrument (Primary Self-concept Inventory) was replicated in both groups of children. (b) There were no significant differences in self-concept scores among high- vs. low-rated children. (c) There were profound differences in academic and social behaviors that were found to covary with positive self-evaluations within the two study groups. In general, high-rated children who felt best about themselves were higher achievers and more compliant than were their study group cohorts. Low-rated children who felt best about themselves were, on the contrary, more off-task, more negative in their peer contacts, and inferior academically to their study group cohorts.     

Risk behaviors and resiliency within physically abused adolescents

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the relationship between physical abuse and several risk behaviors, and thriving behaviors, and the relationship between potential protective factors and engagement in risk and thriving behaviors among victims of physical abuse. Three categories of potential protective factors were examined: (1) individual characteristics, (2) family processes, and (3) extra-familial factors. We expected that high levels of protective factors would reduce engagement in risk behaviors (i.e., alcohol use, tobacco use, drug use, sexual activity, antisocial behavior, attempted suicide, and purging) among abused adolescents. RESULTS: Across all the risk behaviors, abused adolescents reported a higher frequency of engagement than non-abused adolescents. Several protective factors were identified for the seven risk behaviors. Peer group characteristics was a significant predictor in all seven of the logistic regressions, followed by positive school climate (six models), religiosity (five models), other adult support (five models), family support (four models), view of the future (two models), and involvement in extra-curricular activities (two models). The variance accounted for by the models ranged from 2% (risk behavior of purging) to 26% (risk behavior of alcohol use and antisocial behavior). CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that, with the exception of sexual activity, the majority of abused adolescents were not engaging in risk behaviors; however, significantly more abused adolescents were engaging in risk behaviors than their non-abused counterparts. In addition, that protective factors were found to exist at various levels of the adolescents' ecology has strong implications for practice.     

The interplay of gender,parental behaviors,and child maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits

Many studies have reported an effect of childhood maltreatment and parenting behavior with the future development of psychopathic traits. However, there is a limited amount of research on parenting behavior and adult psychopathic traits as possible identifiers of childhood maltreatment. The aim of this study is three-fold (1) identify specific parenting behaviors and adult psychopathic traits that predict forms of childhood maltreatment, (2) explore gender differences, and (3) expand on other studies on psychopathy by focusing on a representative sample of the community. There are significant associations between recalled childhood maltreatment and parenting behavior, and psychopathic traits. Parental rejection was the most recurrent predictor of childhood maltreatment with a significant positive relation to almost all its forms. Paternal overprotection was positively associated with sexual abuse, while the opposite was true for maternal overprotection. Psychopathic traits displayed in adulthood were also strong indicators of childhood maltreatment; females with high levels of boldness were more likely to have experienced sexual abuse in childhood, and those high in disinhibition were more likely to have experienced physical neglect and sexual abuse. While males were generally higher in terms of psychopathic traits, females reported more childhood abuse and negative parental behaviors. These findings provide support for using parenting behavior and psychopathic traits as markers of childhood maltreatment.     

Associations among Adult Attachment Representations, Maternal Sensitivity, and Infant-Mother Attachment in a Sample of Adolescent Mothers

Associations among adolescent attachment organization, maternal sensitivity, and infant attachment organization were examined prospectively in 74 teenaged mother-infant dyads. Pregnant teenagers' attachment organizations predicted both sensitivity and infant-mother attachments. Mothers classified autonomous (F) in the prenatal period showed higher levels of sensitivity at both 3 and 9 months than mothers classified dismissing (Ds), preoccupied (E), or unresolved (U). Correspondence between maternal attachment (F vs. Ds/E/U) and infant attachment (secure [B] vs. avoidant [A]/resistant [C]/ disorganized [D]) was observed in 58 of 74 (78%) dyads. Exact 4-group (Ds/E/F/U and A/B/C/D) agreement was observed in 50 of 74 (68%) families. In contrast, associations between maternal sensitivity and infant attachment were not significant, leading to questions about the processes that link attachment representations, maternal behavior, and infant attachment in adolescent mothers.     

Comparison of Modeling Techniques in Counselor Training

Two techniques of videotape recorded modeling for training counselors to ask open-ended questions (OEQ) were examined. It was hypothesized that a pure video model, exhibiting only desired behavior, would result in greater learning than a corrective video model, exhibiting both desired and undesired behavior, given that both models contained cues to indicate whether the behaviors are desired or undesired. Eighteen undergraduate peer counselors were randomly assigned to either (a) pure video model, (b) corrective video model, or (c) no-treatment control. Pre and postmeasures of level of OEQ responses were obtained by simulated interviews with one of four research assistants trained as pseudo-clients. Results indicate: (a) treatment had a significant effect on percentage of OEQ (F (2, 15) = 3.75, p<.05); (b) only the pure model was significantly different from the no-treatment control (Dunnett's t (3, 15) = 2.58, p <.02); and (c) the pure model was not significantly different from the corrective model. The findings support, but do not confirm, the hypothesis of the study that a pure video model would result in greater learning than a corrective video model. The experimenters suggest that negative modeling examples may interfere with learning at this introductory level of training and that these results have implications for the training methods used by many trainers of counselors.     

Ask me,I (Dis)agree! Acquiescence in student ratings of teaching quality in German vocational schools

Student ratings are frequently used to assess teaching quality even though they might be influenced by an acquiescent response style. Acquiescence is considered particularly common among young respondents and has been recognized as a source of systematic response error. Within a structural equation modeling framework, we examined whether student ratings of teaching quality provided by two age cohorts (fifth- and eighth-grade students) were affected by acquiescence, while additionally controlling for an extreme response style. Across both age cohorts, acquiescence had the highest and most consistent effects on student ratings of teaching quality, whereas extreme responding affected only ratings by fifth-grade students and to a smaller degree. Mean differences in teaching quality ratings between fifth- and eighth- grade students were partly explained by age-related differences in acquiescence. Overall, the effects of acquiescence on student ratings were rather small and primarily affected the ratings provided by younger students (i.e., fifth graders).     

Stability of overt Type A behaviors in children: results from a one-year longitudinal study

This paper describes the degree of similarity between repeated ratings (taken 1 year apart) of overt Type A behaviors in 2 samples totaling 633 children. The measure of overt Type A behaviors was the Matthews Youth Test for Health (MYTH), which was completed by the children's classroom teacher. Results showed that correlations between repeated MYTH ratings approximated .55 and in general increased somewhat with the children's school grade, although correlations between repeated ratings of competitive achievement behaviors of boys residing in an affluent eastern suburb were somewhat lower than above. The degree of similarity across 1 year in children's Type A behaviors is comparable to that found for adult Type A behaviors and for other cardiovascular risk factors in children. The discussion includes a consideration of assumptions underlying research on the origins of Type A behavior and suggests that etiological factors in the development of Type A might profitably be studied in primary school-aged children.     

The effects of early sexual abuse on adult risky sexual behaviors among persons with severe mental illness

OBJECTIVE: There were two aims: first, to examine the relationship between prior sexual abuse and three types of adult risky sexual behaviors [(1) ever traded sex for drugs or money, (2) had unprotected sex in the past 6 months, and (3) frequency of unprotected sex in the past 6 months] among persons with severe mental illness (SMI), and second, to examine the potential mediating effects of adult rape, substance use, and PTSD. METHOD: Using a pooled sample of individuals with SMI (N=609), logistic and negative binomial regression analyses were used to investigate the impact of prior sexual abuse on these adult risky sexual behaviors. RESULTS: Childhood sexual abuse was associated with having ever traded sex for money and having engaged in unprotected sex in the past 6 months. However, childhood sexual abuse was inversely associated with the number of times males had unprotected sex in the past 6 months. Results differed between males and females and the impact of potential mediators also varied by gender and type of outcome studied. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest a complex link between childhood sexual abuse and adult risky sexual behaviors in persons with SMI. Clinical assessments of child abuse sequelae should include a variety of indicators and parameters of adult risky sexual behavior, as persons with SMI are at an increased risk of engaging in high-risk sexual behaviors and tend to have a higher exposure to childhood sexual abuse than does the general population.     

The influence of unsupervised time on elementary school children at high risk for inattention and problem behaviors

In the last few decades, changing socioeconomic and family structures have increasingly left children alone without adult supervision. Carefully prepared and limited periods of unsupervised time are not harmful for children. However, long unsupervised periods have harmful effects, particularly for those children at high risk for inattention and problem behaviors. In this study, we examined the influence of unsupervised time on behavior problems by studying a sample of elementary school children at high risk for inattention and problem behaviors. The study analyzed data from the Children's Mental Health Promotion Project, which was conducted in collaboration with education, government, and mental health professionals. The child behavior checklist (CBCL) was administered to assess problem behaviors among first- and fourth-grade children. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the influence of unsupervised time on children's behavior. A total of 3,270 elementary school children (1,340 first-graders and 1,930 fourth-graders) were available for this study; 1,876 of the 3,270 children (57.4%) reportedly spent a significant amount of time unsupervised during the day. Unsupervised time that exceeded more than 2 h per day increased the risk of delinquency, aggressive behaviors, and somatic complaints, as well as externalizing and internalizing problems. Carefully planned afterschool programming and care should be provided to children at high risk for inattention and problem behaviors. Also, a more comprehensive approach is needed to identify the possible mechanisms by which unsupervised time aggravates behavior problems in children predisposed for these behaviors.     

Assessing the relationship between child sexual abuse and marginal living conditions on HIV/AIDS-related risk behavior among women prisoners

OBJECTIVE: There were two aims in this research. First, to examine the relationships between childhood sexual abuse and HIV drug and sexual risk taking behaviors among female prisoners, and second, to examine the relationship between a marginal adult living context and HIV drug and sexual risk taking behavior among female prisoners. METHOD: The data were collected through face-to-face interviews with a random sample of 500 women at admission to prison in 1994. Differences between women who were sexually abused while growing up (n = 130) were compared to women who reported no sexual abuse (n = 370) along various demographic, and HIV drug and sexual risk taking dimensions. RESULTS: A history of sexual abuse while growing up was associated with increased sexual risk taking behaviors in adulthood. A marginal adult living situation also emerged as an important factor increasing the risk for HIV infection. Examining the co-occurrence of both childhood sexual abuse and adult marginal living context revealed a strong relationship between these two factors and HIV risk taking activities. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that childhood sexual abuse may be a predictor for HIV sexual risk taking behaviors among incarcerated women. The marginal and chaotic adult living style of these women was also associated the extent of their HIV drug and sexual risk taking behaviors. Our research suggests that the co-occurrence of sexual victimization and marginality is a stronger predictor of HIV risk than each variable alone.     

Child maltreatment and adult criminal behavior: Does criminal thinking explain the association?

Criminal thinking styles were examined as mediational links between different forms of child maltreatment (i.e., sexual abuse, physical abuse, and physical neglect) and adult criminal behaviors in 338 recently adjudicated men. Analyses revealed positive associations between child sexual abuse and sexual offenses as an adult, and between child physical abuse/neglect and endorsing proactive and reactive criminal thinking styles. Mediation analyses showed that associations between overall maltreatment history and adult criminal behaviors were accounted for by general criminal thinking styles and both proactive and reactive criminal thinking. These findings suggest a potential psychological pathway to criminal behavior associated with child maltreatment. Limitations of the study as well as research and clinical implications of the results are discussed.     

Are reading and behavior problems risk factors for each other?

Two questions were investigated. First, are children with reading problems in first grade more likely to experience behavior problems in third grade? Second, are children with behavior problems in first grade more likely to experience reading problems in third grade? The authors explored both questions by using multilevel logistic regression modeling to analyze data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class (ECLS-K). After statistically controlling for a wide range of potential confounds, they found that children with reading problems in first grade were significantly more likely to display poor task engagement, poor self-control, externalizing behavior problems, and internalizing behavior problems in third grade. They also found that children displaying poor task engagement in first grade were more likely to experience reading problems in third grade. Collectively, these findings suggest that the most effective types of interventions are likely to be those that target problems with reading and task-focused behaviors simultaneously.     

Sexual Activity and Problem Behaviors among Black, Urban Adolescents

This article focuses on whether sexual activity is best considered in the same paradigm as adolescent substance use and assault or separately. Among black, inner-city adolescents (N = 705), followed longitudinally since first grade, 3 questions were examined: (1) how these 3 behaviors co-occur, (2) their early family and school precursors, and (3) their relations with adolescent school behavior and parental supervision. The 3 most frequent patterns were compared: no problem behaviors, only sexual activity, and the combination of sexual activity, heavy substance use, and/or assault. In general, the multiproblem adolescents differed from the other adolescents in their behavior and parental supervision. While sex-only males were similar to the no-problem males, sex-only-females differed from the no-problem girls in their family origins. These results suggest that by examining adolescent behaviors in their co-occurring combinations in epidemiologically defined populations, variations in pathways to deviance can be better understood.     

Sexual and physical abuse history and adult sexual risk behaviors: relationships among women and potential mediators

OBJECTIVE: While research has supported associations between experiencing abuse and engaging in risky sexual behaviors during adolescence, research regarding these associations among adult women is much more equivocal. In addition, few studies have attempted to identify potential pathways from abuse experiences to sexual risk behaviors. The current study examined the associations between a history of physical or sexual abuse and recent sexual risk behaviors among adult women. Additionally, this study evaluated binge drinking and depressive symptomatology as potential mediators of any relationships between abuse history and sexual risk behaviors. METHODS: A total of 1,428 women between 18 and 40 years of age attending family planning clinic appointments completed a self-report survey regarding their recent sexual behaviors and sexual and physical abuse history. Logistic regressions using backward elimination were conducted to identify factors associated with sexual risk behavior. RESULTS: A history of physical abuse by a romantic partner was associated with several sexual risk behaviors. Few significant associations between intrafamilial physical or sexual abuse and recent sexual risk behaviors were found. Additionally, there was no evidence that these relationships were mediated by binge drinking or depressive symptomatology. CONCLUSIONS: Familial abuse experiences are not necessarily associated with recent sexual risk behaviors among adults. In contrast, physical abuse experiences, particularly those perpetrated by a romantic partner, are associated with engaging in adult sexual risk behaviors among women. However, these associations are not mediated by alcohol use or depressive symptomatology.     

Young children selectively avoid helping people with harmful intentions

Two studies investigated whether young children are selectively prosocial toward others, based on the others' moral behaviors. In Study 1 (N = 54), 3-year-olds watched 1 adult (the actor) harming or helping another adult. Children subsequently helped the harmful actor less often than a third (previously neutral) adult, but helped the helpful and neutral adults equally often. In Study 2 (N = 36), 3-year-olds helped an actor who intended but failed to harm another adult less often than a neutral adult, but helped an accidentally harmful and a neutral adult equally often. Children's prosocial behavior was thus mediated by the intentions behind the actor's moral behavior, irrespective of outcome. Children thus selectively avoid helping those who cause--or even intend to cause--others harm.     

The evolution of learned and innate behavior: Contributions from genetics and neurobiology to a theory of behavioral evolution

In recent years, ethologists and psychologists have become increasingly interested in the evolution of the ability to learn and in the relationship between innate and learned behavior. However, recent discussions of behavioral evolution have not adequately incorporated contemporary knowledge of nervous system development and structure. Most discussions are based on the following assumptions: (1) That innate behaviors are programmed by specific genes; (2) that learning requires a larger, more flexible nervous system than does innate behavior; and (3) that the ability to learn is phylogenetically more recent than innate behavior. This paper reviews information about nervous system development and the neurobiology of plasticity and learning that questions the validity of these assumptions. It is hypothesized that behavioral flexibility is phylogenetically primitive and that learned behavioral adaptations may commonly precede innate forms of the same behaviors. The role of genetic assimilation in behavioral evolution is discussed.     

The relationship between neonatal characteristics and three-month mother-infant interaction in high-risk infants

The behavior of 4 groups of infants--healthy term, healthy preterm, sick preterm, and sick full-term--was assessed in the neonatal period using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). At 3 months postterm, infants and their mothers were observed and videotaped in a free-play session. Both the NBAS and mother-infant interaction data were analyzed to assess the effects of maturity (term vs. preterm), illness (sick vs. healthy), and their interaction. Results revealed that illness of the infant affected both NBAS performance and maternal behavior during the interaction at 3 moths. Infants who were ill performed poorly on the NBAS orientation dimension; this dimension was found to be significantly associated with maternal and infant behaviors at 3 months. These data demonstrate an association between early infant characteristics and subsequent mother and child interactive behaviors. They also identify postnatal illness as an important influence on the development of the mother-infant dyad.     

Links between empathy,social behavior,and social understanding in early childhood

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine both social behaviors (i.e., aggression, shyness-withdrawal, and prosocial tendencies) and social understanding (i.e., attitudes and responses to such behaviors in hypothetical peers) of empathic and low-empathic children. Participants were 136 children in kindergarten and grade one. Parents completed ratings of child empathy, shyness, aggression, and prosocial tendencies. Children were presented with vignettes depicting prosocial, aggressive, or shy peers, and asked questions concerning their understanding and responses towards these behaviors. Results indicated that as compared to low-empathic peers, more empathic children were reported to exhibit greater prosocial behavior and less aggression and social-withdrawal. In addition, empathic children demonstrated a more sophisticated understanding of shyness and aggression as compared to less empathic peers. These results suggest that empathic children are more socially sensitive, both in terms of their social understanding of others as well as their own social behaviors.     

Eliciting web site preferences of people with learning disabilities

The Internet can be an excellent tool to help people with learning disabilities access relevant and appropriately written information. However, little work has been undertaken to ascertain web design or content preferences for this cohort. This paper examines methods to address this issue. Twenty five participants were presented with three web sites dealing with employment information. They were asked to browse each and carry out a series of set‐tasks. Interviews and a rating scale ascertained preferences. The problem of acquiescence bias, the tendency for people to automatically agree with those in perceived positions of authority, was minimised by the avoidance of ‘polar interrogatives’ (questions requiring a ‘yes/no’ or similarly polarised answer). Participants liked the use of pictures, especially when they featured other young people with learning disabilities. Abstract content related to money or benefits often went unnoticed. Audio was appreciated where offered, although not extensively used. Preferences regarding text size and menu position were also established. Results are compared to other relevant literature and recommendations formulated to help web developers and information providers. The methodological issues inherent in this study were the use of the rating system, and the interview technique. The former was adapted following early findings that the neutral position, on a three point scale, was confusing. Using four points avoided this problem and produced more varied results. Avoiding polar interrogatives greatly helped in minimising ‘acquiescence bias’. The study concludes that it is possible to elicit considerable information from people who find it difficult to articulate their views.