President's Introduction: Religious Education for Peace and Justice

This article gives an overview of “practical theology” as an emerging paradigm, and discusses problems and possibilities in using the paradigm for religious education of “Generation X” in a postmodern context. The article posits that a postmodern sensibility does not imply the cognitive capacity for a truly postmodern style of meaning‐making. Drawing on Robert Kegan and the author's teaching experience with young adults, the article raises the caution that Generation X may not be prepared developmentally for postmodern educational approaches. Possibilities for using practical theological elements such as story, playfulness, and making connections are raised in relation to this age‐group.     

Moral development,transformative learning,and the dialogical self

Attempts to find positive new directions for moral education now face a number of well‐recognized challenges, including those relating to the rise of commodification and the virtualization of experience. It is argued that there is now a need for innovative approaches that move beyond the traditional frameworks of critical thinking and ethical reasoning, and that encourage the development of moral dispositions and personal conscience. One crucial limitation of traditional approaches lies in their reliance on a monological interpretation of self‐reflection that emphasizes objective impressions of the self. It is proposed that only a dialogical model of self‐reflection that recognizes the presence of competing self‐impressions is fully consistent with the kinds of authentic self‐reflection and critical questioning that are required for the develc pment of moral conscience. The emerging dialogical model of the self is also compatible with an approach to moral conduct grounded in the idea of an ‘ethics without ethics’ in which dispositions to act for the good of the community become the focal goals. It is argued that the dialogical model of the self supports a dynamic view of selfhood and identity through which the subject is encouraged to recognize its own complexity and vulnerability, rather than external principles, as the basis for moral responsibility and action. In practical terms, the dialogical model supports the idea of engaging students in activities in which they are encouraged to monitor their own thoughts, feelings, and actions, rather than in activities which perpetuate objective, monological modes of self‐thematization.     

The research locus and conceptual basis for MULTILIT: Why we do what we do

Abstract

MULTILIT is predicated upon contemporary, evidence‐based best practice and research‐based models for effective instruction of reading and related skills for low‐progress readers. The conceptual foundations and operating principles of MULTILIT are described in Wheldall and Beaman (2000), while three government funded reports from Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom have reviewed the effectiveness of different approaches to the teaching of reading. This paper draws on these resources to explain ‘why we do what we do’ in MULTILIT instructional programs, showing how MULTILIT relates to, and is consistent with, international research and best practice in this area.     

阅读障碍评估研究的趋势

阅读障碍作为一个严重且普遍的问题受到了研究者的重视。阅读障碍儿童的异质性和阅读过程的复杂性使得很难形成统一、有效和有指导性的评估模式。本文回顾了以往的评估模式,介绍了新近出现的各种评估方法和理念,在此基础上对阅读障碍评估的发展趋势做了简要的总结。     

The Language Demands of Science Reading in Middle School

The language used to construct knowledge, beliefs, and worldviews in school science is distinct from the social language that students use in their everyday ordinary life. This difference is a major source of reading difficulty for many students, especially struggling readers and English‐language learners. This article identifies some of the linguistic challenges involved in reading middle‐school science texts and suggests several teaching strategies to help students cope with these challenges. It is argued that explicit attention to the unique language of school science should be an integral part of science literacy pedagogy.     

Considerations in the identification,assessment, and intervention process for deaf and hard of hearing students with reading difficulties

Problematic assessment and intervention issues present substantial challenges when making educational decisions for deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) students who are experiencing reading difficulties. These students present a diverse set of language acquisition skills, hearing ability, and orientation to early school learning activities that are different from the hearing student population. Given the importance of selecting assessment approaches that lead to effective interventions for D/HH students, three assessment procedures for identification of at‐risk children and learning disabilities within the D/HH population are examined. Assessments reviewed are teacher referral, norm‐referenced testing, and student response to intervention. Challenges to each process and the need for additional assessment and empirically validated treatment options are discussed. Finally, a case example is presented to illustrate a framework that may help school psychologists promote early identification of learning problems and outline interventions that meets a D/HH child's unique needs by focusing on reading outcomes in the curriculum. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A too liberal religious education? A thought experiment for teachers and theorists

This paper proposes that the ideas of political philosopher John Rawls could be adapted to offer a new starting point for a pedagogy of religious education (RE) in the non‐denominational sector. It is argued that contemporary approaches to RE may infringe the liberal principle of freedom of belief by favouring certain methods of interpreting religions. In response to this criticism, it is suggested that teachers can construct a just and fair pedagogy, which is truly liberal in its assumptions, by following a procedure similar to that advocated by Rawls. Readers are invited to don a ‘veil of ignorance’ and imagine that from this perspective they are to enter into a hypothetical contract outlining the founding principles of a pedagogical approach. It is argued that those entering into such a contract would opt for a form of critical RE not dissimilar to Wright’s that aims to present religions and competing ideologies without distortion. It is hoped that this hypothetical contract can thus characterise and legitimise the first principles of a truly liberal RE, and provide a convenient conceptual apparatus that eliminates bias and promotes balance.     

A Strategy for Assessing Problems in Word Recognition among Dyslexics

The article argues for the importance of studying word‐recognition strategies in the assessment of dyslexia. The consensus model of word recognition in cognitive neuropsychology, the dual‐route model, is critically discussed in the light of attacks from computational models in modern connectionism. Despite the criticism, it is argued that a dual‐route model can serve important functions in the context of dyslexia assessment. We propose a specific version of the dual‐route model from which we construct a series of tasks for diagnosing subprocesses in word recognition. A computer‐based test battery is described, involving oral reading tasks, lexical decision, rhyme detection, letter categorization, visual analysis, naming, and semantic categorization. Latencies and accuracy scores are recorded. The usefulness of this assessment approach is demonstrated in two case studies of 15‐year‐old dyslexic boys.     

Reexamining data from the national reading panel's meta‐analysis: Implications for school psychology

The National Reading Panel (NRP) recently conducted a meta‐analysis about reading interventions and made several recommendations from the data. However, given that reading is the academic area for which most children are referred to school psychologists, further exploration of the implications of the NRP data may be warranted. Effect size data for reading outcome measures were qualitatively interpreted, with none of the posttest effect sizes, and only one‐third of all of the effect size coefficients exhibiting a large effect. Furthermore, reading outcome measures were divided into three categories: pseudowords, words in isolation, and contextual reading. The resulting recomputed mean effect sizes of .84, .92., and .37, respectively, questions the grouping of these three variables into one outcome. Other concerns about methodology were also included. This supports the need for targeted reading interventions based on assessment of reading skills. Implications for the three roles that school psychologists play in the educational research area are also discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 40: 605–612, 2003.     

Exploring classroom assessment practices: the case of teachers of English as a foreign language

The research investigated the factors which underlie the perceptions and usage of alternative assessment procedures among EFL teachers in Israel. The research was conducted within the framework of an earlier model by Hargreaves and colleagues comprising four perspectives – technological, cultural, political and postmodern – to account for teachers’ assessment practices and beliefs. The sample included 113 EFL teachers who responded to a self‐report questionnaire. The model’s four perspectives were validated using a two‐stage factor analysis. Results show that the predominant factor related to the usage of alternative assessment is the technological one, followed by the cultural and postmodern perspectives. The political perspective yielded mixed results. The findings highlight the complexity of teachers’ assessment practices reflecting not merely a testing approach but a social and educational paradigm encompassing micro constraints (technological), macro influences (political), ideologies and commonly‐held beliefs (cultural) as well as evidence of critical pedagogy (postmodern).     

Determining Appropriate Accommodations for Postsecondary Students with Reading and Written Expression Disorders

One of the most significant barriers facing postsecondary students with reading and written expression disorders who are eligible to receive specific accommodations is the lack of professional knowledge pertaining to issues surrounding accommodations. Though guided by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act, the process by which accommodation decisions are made varies considerably across institutions of higher education. Given the recent rise in litigation surrounding the practice of how accommodations are determined as well as the increasing number of postsecondary students with reading and writing disabilities who are requesting accommodations, it is imperative that accommodation decisions be defensible and supported by empirical research. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of current research on the effectiveness of accommodations for postsecondary students with language‐based learning disabilities, discuss important considerations in the accommodation selection process, and offer recommendations for future research.     

Teacher inquiry into formative assessment practices in remedial reading classrooms

Six remedial reading teachers in a large, rural school district participated in a form of professional development called Teaching as Intentional Learning, based on an inquiry process. Their topic of inquiry was formative assessment. Professional development comprised both direct instruction and inquiry learning in teachers’ own classrooms. This study describes the strategies they experimented with, their professional growth in formative assessment, and effects on students. All six teachers showed important professional growth, as indicated by their own reflections and also by their supervisor’s observations. In First Grade, at‐risk students assigned to these project teachers had increased reading readiness scores on one measure (DIBELS PSF) compared with at‐risk students assigned to non‐project teachers.     

Closing a Virtuous Circle: Reciprocal Influences Between Theory and Practice in Studies of Reading Intervention

Abstract

The authors reflect on findings from three studies of different approaches to reading intervention (Al Otaiba et al., Denton et al., and Miller et al., all found in this issue). It is argued that the science of interventions for reading disorders is advanced and that these and other related studies provide a strong evidence base for guiding educational policy in this area. Reading interventions need to be based on theories of reading development and reading difficulty. Current causal models of reading development arguably have focused almost exclusively on the cognitive processes underlying reading development and how best to remediate deficiencies in such processes. Such models are typically silent on broader influences (motivational, attentional, and socio-cultural) on learning, however. It is concluded that future theories will need to be broadened in order to develop more effective interventions for children with a variety of reading and language learning difficulties.     

Beginning readers' use of ‘talking books’ software can affect their reading strategies

This paper reports on a small‐scale study that considered whether a phonic‐based ‘talking book’ could outperform one‐to‐one reading tuition with an adult with respect to improving beginning readers' phonological awareness over a short period. It also examined whether the children's reading strategies were affected by their use of the software. Two groups of children, one aged five years and one aged six years, used three phonic‐based talking books over six 15‐minute sessions and were assessed on their phonological awareness and reading strategies both before and after this intervention. Their performance was compared to that of matched comparison groups who were given one‐to‐one adult tutoring with the paper versions of the same books. There were no significant differences between the two groups in their phonological awareness attainment, with both groups showing equivalent gains from pre‐ to post‐test. Use of specific features of the software was associated with gains in rhyme detection ability and with changes in the children's reading strategies.     

Tracking the Development of Learning Dispositions

The fundamental purpose of education for the 21st century, it is argued, is not so much the transmission of particular bodies of knowledge, skill and understanding as facilitating the development of the capacity and the confidence to engage in lifelong learning. Central to this enterprise is the development of positive learning dispositions, such as resilience, playfulness and reciprocity. For a variety of reasons, it is necessary to devise methods for tracking and assessing the growth of these dispositions. There are a number of existing methods that might be used, including dynamic assessment, customised challenges, 'learning stories', self-report questionnaires and learning logs, which we evaluate against the criteria of practicability, validity, flexibility and reliability and formative value. We conclude that no single method is adequate on its own and that what is necessary is the development of instruments and approaches that integrate these different assessment methods. We offer a 'learning disposition grid' and a 'learning disposition portfolio' as tools to begin this integrative inquiry.     

The phenomenology of on‐screen reading: University students' lived experience of digitised text

As reading shifts from the page to the screen, research focuses primarily upon the nature and effects of hypertextual reading. However, many of the texts that university students read for academic purposes are digitised texts that begin life as paper‐based books and papers and are read on‐screen. Applying the principles and practices of hermeneutic phenomenology, this study sought to gain insight into university students' experiences of reading digitised texts such as e‐books and Portable Document Format files. Open‐ended interviews were conducted with 10 students. A thematic analysis of the interviews revealed six main themes: the disappearing page, to have but not to hold, the ever present screen, getting in focus, the disciplined body and finding what I need.     

Reading Ages and NFER Reading Tests

The article outlines some practical and theoretical weaknesses of the concept of ‘reading age’. It considers ambiguity in the computational methods for determining the ‘average’ reading age and the tendency for a reading age to become a fixed property of a pupil rather than an estimate of his standing, relative to time of testing and choice of test. A theoretical standpoint is taken that insufficient is known about the way a reader develops for his attainment to be given a developmental or age‐based score. It is further suggested that in any case the relationship between age and reading development is imperfect. This point is developed further when the assumption of a linear pattern in reading development is criticized. It is further suggested that insofar as reading does follow chronological age an age‐adjustment in the scale used to express attainment is highly desirable. Practical considerations such as selection of reading material, comparison with other educational tests and the assessment of reading progress, are mentioned. The article concludes with a brief resume of the problems associated with reading ‘quotients’ and designating children as ‘under‐achievers’.     

Children's experiences of reading classes and reading schools in Ireland

In this article the author reports on the experiences of 20 children who attended a reading class/reading school for a placement period before returning to mainstream. While the original much larger doctoral study encompassed parents' and teachers' perspectives, this article is confined to the views of children. Their prevailing positive experiences of reading classes and schools are relayed, illustrating a snapshot of education provided in these settings, but they also provide an insight into how inclusive practices are orchestrated and function in these segregated settings. While academic and socio‐emotional gains are evident, the findings also highlight the challenges for mainstream schools in becoming more inclusive, particularly in the area of interactive approaches in addressing the needs of pupils with dyslexia.     

Comparative Educational Research: the need for reconceptualisation and fresh insights

This paper argues that a century after Michael Sadler's famous speech on ‘How far can we learn anything of practical value from the study of foreign systems of education?’ the turn of a new century/millennium provides a useful opportunity to think afresh about comparative and international education as a field of study. It provides six justifications, or needs, for a reconceptualisation, arguing that the challenges and changes facing education systems world‐wide offer a unique opportunity for compara‐tivists to help to shape future policies.     

The delicate dance: the assessment implications of awarding students vocational qualifications within university degrees

This paper explores the implications for assessment of embedding qualifications from the vocational education and training (VET) sector within university qualifications. As VET qualifications are now all competency based, assessment in the two sectors is quite different, since universities have generally eschewed competency‐based training and assessment. A general discussion of the issues is followed by the results of a small‐scale research study carried out in the VET discipline area itself, with participants drawn from the AVTEC list of VET teacher‐educators. Telephone interviews were conducted with nine Australian university academics involved with such qualifications; and data were extracted from a broader study of students who had undertaken the Certificate IV in Assessment and Workplace Training embedded within degrees and graduate diplomas in VET at one of these universities. It is clear that there are many assessment challenges involved with the practice of embedding, which have not yet been systematically addressed.