Learning from the Imaginary

Abstract

Much educational practice is based on the view that children can advance their moral “understanding by exploring the imaginary worlds of creative writers, or by creating their own imaginary worlds. It is here argued that it is a mistake to rely on such explorations as a source either of moral didactic or of morally important knowledge about people. There are, however, grounds for believing that they can contribute importantly to moral education by extending children's vision of moral possibilities and perhaps byincreasing their skill in coming to understand people.     

Attachment and the child in school. Part I

Abstract

Using the framework of Attachment Theory and related research and the research and experience of the author, a particular pattern of behaviour is described which can be identified in the classroom. This pattern, known as the Anxious Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment Pattern, is described from a teaching and learning perspective and is illustrated with examples from educational practice. Possible opportunities for intervention are discussed aimed at facilitating change in the pupil and enhancing emotional well being and educational opportunity. This article will be followed by another (Part II) describing other patterns of attachment which have been identified, with the aim of extending the teacher's understanding of the meaning of pupil behaviour and increasing the resilience potential in the learning situation.     

Modes of Moral Thought

Abstract

This paper reviews current theories of moral development and points out a number of common aspects which appear to lack full empirical support. An alternative theory of moral development, proposed by Norman Williams, is tested here and its main conclusions receive tentative support. These are that moral development is cumulative rather than linear in nature and that it takes place within four separate modes ‐‐ expedient, altruistic, intuitive and heteronomous ‐‐ in parallel.

It is suggested that this classification scheme provides a valuable research tool for investigating the relationship between moral thought and variables such as age, sex, intelligence and social class, but that confirmation of its basic hypotheses is essential before further research can be undertaken.     

Meaningful interaction: toward a new theoretical approach to online instruction

ABSTRACT

Taking full advantage of the educative benefits of interaction in digital learning environments will require the development of new theoretical frameworks that can contribute to a richer understanding of interaction. Literary theory provides an excellent place to develop such a framework and advanced understanding. Literary theory enables us to reconceptualise online courses as ‘texts’, thereby equipping us with more sophisticated modes of analysis for the teaching and learning process. By rethinking online courses as texts, and better yet as what Roland Barthes has described as ‘writerly’ texts, we can improve interaction in the online classroom. More importantly, we can move toward a more meaningful form of interaction, where learners interact with course content at the level of meaning and meaning making, where interaction becomes a full participation in the production of a lesson’s meaning. Indeed, this aim of co-producing meaning should be the primary objective of all learning.     

Moral Education and the Training of Teachers

Abstract

In this study of the relationship between moral behaviour, level of moral development, and motivation, moral behaviour was assessed in an experimental situation in which it was necessary to violate the experimenter's authority to help someone; level of moral development was assessed by Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Scale, and motivation by a post‐experimental interview.

Although 72 per cent of the subjects stated afterwards that they felt that they should help, only 43 per cent did, and only 6 per cent volunteered their own service. As the level of moral development rose, an increasing percentage of subjects helped. Subjects interpreted the same situation differently and were motivated to make the same response for different reasons, which varied with their level of moral development.     

Moral Reasoning and Moral Education

Abstract

It is argued that R.W. Beardsmore's account of moral reasoning provides the most satisfactory explanation of moral behaviour and this is supported by an examination of his main criticisms of R.M. Hare and Philippa Foot. The chief educational implication of Beardsmore's account of moral development is, it is suggested, that, though educators cannot be uncommitted on fundamental moral issues, they can, nevertheless, ensure that rational procedures are followed. A committed teacher is not, therefore, necessarily a moral indoctrinator. In conclusion it is suggested that arguments for neutrality rest on mistaken assumptions about the nature of morality and that, without a background of established and accepted values moral education cannot even be considered.     

Confronting the analogy: primary teachers exploring the usefulness of analogies in the teaching and learning of electricity

Abstract

Analogies are commonly employed in teaching and learning about abstract scientific phenomena such as electricity. There has been extensive research on the effectiveness of a range of analogies in promoting conceptual understanding with respect to the behaviour of simple circuits. Such studies focus on the development of learners’ thinking with respect to the transfer of understanding from the analogy to the target concept. This study attempts to explore what happens to individuals’ learning when analogies break down in the light of practical investigation. It proposes that the honest appraisal of such breakdown can constitute an effective learning tool. The implications for teacher education and classroom practice are discussed.     

Moral Decision‐Making,Religious Reinforcement and Some Educational Implications

Abstract

There is a fundamental gap between people's assertions as to what is right or wrong and their actual behaviour. This has been traditionally attributed to akrasia or weakness of the will. This paper examines this concept, and the related positive concept of KRAT, and considers what moral education can do about it. Claims by R.B. Braithwaite and others that religious traditions can provide reinforcement are examined and attention is directed to some important qualifications. The implications for moral education are considered, and it is argued that attempts by moral educationists to get to grips with this weakness must involve their own participation in moral debate and in decisions concerning the moral ethos of society.

Anyone who observes human behaviour through moral spectacles soon discovers that there is a significant gap between people's assertions as to what is right or wrong and their actual behaviour. This gap is traditionally attributed to akrasia or weakness of the will. Any attempt to get to grips with moral education must (a) take cognizance of this phenomena and (b) consider what, if anything, can be done about it. In this paper I aim to do three things: (i) to draw attention to some significant factors associated with akrasia, (ii) to explore claims that religious traditions can help to overcome such weakness and (iii) to draw some general conclusions from these points for moral education.     

The Democratic Teacher in the Contemporary Social and Ideological Context

Abstract:

Current philosophical trends in North America are again raising the issue as to whether or not there can be ‘ moral experts’. An expert is defined here as one who predicts and explains better than the layman m a particular domain on the basis of his specialized underlying knowledge of it This analysis is then applied to the domain of morality. Special attention is given to the claim that moral philosophers are professionally more capable of critically thinking through the nature of moral problems. It is argued that philosophers tend to neglect the area of actual argumentation about specific moral issues, and that it is here, at the point of contact with living moral experience and empirical research into it that the possibility of ‘ moral expertise’ lies.     

Moral Education: Problem Solving and Survival

Abstract:

Based on a study of variations in moral responses of Chinese and American children, an assessment is made of stage theories of moral development Moral development models that are primarily based upon cognitive development theories are judged to be deficient in their failure to account for rates and levels of intemalization. The type and extent of manipulation of affect in learning appears to be the major factor that has been ignored. Of particular importance for education, the article concludes that intemalization can be increased through the use of specific learning techniques.     

Professional and Moral Development for Care Work: some observations on the process

Abstract

Several aspects of the professional education of those who work in caring roles are discussed, with particular reference to dementia. Three experiential learning exercises are described, together with the opportunities they provide for moral development. Suggestions are made about the moral demands of care work, and general inferences are drawn for the practice of moral education.     

A New Direction for the Study of Moral Behaviour

Abstract

Differences between cognitive development and social learning theories as they relate to moral development are assessed and an attempt is made to reconcile the points at dispute through the development of an alternate paradigm of the moral development process. While exact weighting of the variables still requires further research, some material from Chinese and American socialization experiences is presented as an example of how excessive variation in the influence of certain variables may impede moral development.     

Psychopathy: the Incapacity to have Moral Emotions

Abstract

‘Lovelessness’ and ‘guiltlessness’ are often seen as the distinctive features of the psychopath. These characteristics can be interpreted as a failure to have two sub‐classes of moral emotions, the (moral) rule‐emotions and the altruistic emotions. For a better understanding of this moral defect, a more detailed analysis of these types of moral emotions is given. The analysis indicates that the disorder is caused by the absence of the second component of both types of emotions. The psychopath misses a positive commitment to both moral rules and to the well‐being of fellow man. The psychopath is characterized as a moral imbecile, and it is assumed that his moral development is stagnated in an early developmental stage. As a young child, the psychopath has not acquired the disposition to feel sympathy. This insight makes us aware of the utmost importance of early childhood (moral) education.     

Social Justice,Democratic Education and the Silencing of Words that Wound

In recent years, research within the sociocultural perspective on moral learning has contributed important knowledge about how individuals develop their moral ability by participating in sociocultural activities. To a lesser extent, sociocultural research has focused on the role of individual continuity in these processes. The purpose of this article is to contribute to the progress of the sociocultural perspective by suggesting an approach that allows for an in situ analysis of how individuals' prior experiences take part in the processes of moral meaning‐making, which also takes sociocultural activity into consideration. The philosophical and methodological basis for this approach consists of a combination of Dewey's transactional perspective on meaning‐making and Wittgenstein's first‐person perspective on language use. The article contains an empirical example that illustrates this approach. This analysis shows how prior experiences are re‐actualised in an event and thus participate in the process of moral meaning‐making, as well as contributing to the substance of the meanings made.     

The Child as a Philosopher of Values: Development of a Distinct Perception of Values in Childhood

Abstract

This study suggests a distinct concept of value as a reason for action, and examines its validity and development in children aged 6‐7, 9‐10, and 12‐13. In the distinct meaning suggested here, value refers to perception of a behaviour as intrinsically (non‐contingently) desirable yet not strictly obligatory. Values are thus distinguished from morality, conventions and personal preferences by the dimensions of (1) intrinsic versus contingent validity and (2) obligatory versus non‐obligatory nature. The study reveals that many 6‐ to 7‐year‐old children already demonstrate a distinct concept of value, as defined here, and that this distinction develops with age. Subjects also distinguished between values and other reasons for action in terms of the most frequent type of reasons they gave for their perceptions, i.e. short‐ and long‐term utility as opposed to the welfare of others or social norms. It is suggested that the child's concept of values is based on his or her perceptions of a child's development, entailing increasing control over the environment, and that these very perceptions affect the child's actual behaviour and development.     

Commentary on Two Articles by H. L. Gray

In this article, I argue that sanctions based upon emotional well-being or upon self-esteem are insufficient for motivating consistently moral behaviour, and furthermore, that they reduce ultimately to hedonism. I argue that this is also the case even in the hypothetical event that all moral action results in heightened self-esteem, and all immoral action results in lower self-esteem. Along the way, I compare self-esteem as moral sanction with the concept of telos, that is, an objectively-given moral purpose, in order to show that moral sanctions can be based upon self-interest without collapsing into hedonism.     

Kohl berg's Cognitive‐Developmental Theory in Educational Settings: Some Possible Abuses

Abstract

Kohlberg's cognitive‐developmental theory provides teachers with a framework for understanding the change and development of moral judgment and decision‐making of their pupils. One major abuse, however, may be when teachers take the stage labels associated with the hypothesized stage levels of moral judgment as indicative of static student qualities or characteristics, by placing more emphasis on perceived and labelled qualities than on the actual moral reasoning of the student. This, it is suggested, together with some empirical examples, may obscure the developmental trend of the student's moral judgment or even affect the teacher's expectations and consequently student's performance, and fails to take into account such factors as environment and interpersonal interaction. A study is reported in which curriculum consultants exposed to moral development theory were tested to determine whether they would use Kohlbergian labels of stage content or actual moral reasoning when required to make assessments. Suggestions are put forward as to how moral development theory can be more closely linked to pedagogy.     

The Professional Approach to Moral Education

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to offer a definition of the professional approach to moral education and to contrast it with what will here be called the commonsense approach. The labels ‘professional’ and ‘commonsense’ are to be taken as evaluatively neutral. They are chosen simply for convenience; what is important is the two conceptually distinct ways of approaching moral education to which they refer. As will be emphasized later, they are not alternative conceptions of moral education. The commonsense approach, in some form, is necessarily part of moral education in any context; the question is whether, in schools, we move beyond it and become professional as well..     

Moral Socialization: An Empirical Analysis of the Hogan Model

Abstract

An alternative social psychological model of moral development, proposed by Robert Hogan, is empirically assessed for the first time. Five character‐trait dimensions of moral character (moral knowledge, socialization, empathy, autonomy, and ethical attitudes) were used to predict a measure of rule‐breaking behaviour. Results indicate some support for Hogan's model. Suggestions are made for refinements in Hogan's theory and for additional research.     

A Survey of Primary School Teachers’ Understanding and Implementation of Moral Education in Trinidad and Tobago 1

Abstract

Results from a survey of teachers’ understanding and implementation of moral education in primary schools in Trinidad and Tobago are presented here, against consideration of the role of moral education in schooling. The paper discusses the range of moral curricula available for the implementation of moral education in schools and constraints on implementation in the classroom. It also compares the need for and applicability of moral education programmes in developing and developed countries. In Trinidad and Tobago, noted for its population and religious mix, the role of moral education has been given importance from the highest levels at the Ministry of Education and elsewhere in government. The survey of a representative sample of teachers in primary schools throughout the country showed that they largely felt themselves responsible for introducing moral education to their pupils, although they rarely drew upon any specific curriculum. They tended to take a ‘virtues’ approach in their teaching of moral education, and were generally satisfied with the results of their efforts. There were few differences between understanding and implementation of moral education that could be attributed to age, sex, experience or responsibilities of the teacher, or the age of the pupils. These results are not just characteristic of a developing country as they mirror earlier findings in England and elsewhere.